
V • • ♦ * ' M • • r • . * * 4 , * . - - . < * . . * ■ * * • 7 ' 

































Figure 1. —The Sower. 

By Albin Polasek, Moravia. 
(Courtesy of The Art Institute, Chicago.) 



HEALTH 


PUBLIC AND PERSONAL 


BY 


A 


RALPH E." BLOUNT 

A 

WALLER HIGH SCHOOL 
CHICAGO 




ALLYN and BACON 

BOSTON NEW YORK CHICAGO 

SAN FRANCISCO 


ATLANTA 


.■3 


COPYRIGHT, 1922 
BY RALPH E. BLOUNT 



NorfoootJ ^resa 

J. S. Cushing Co. — Berwick & Smith Co. 
Norwood, Mass., U.S.A. 

JAN 30 

90 ’ ' 


*23 


PREFACE 


This book aims to promote good health in individuals and 
in communities. To keep ourselves healthy in all situations 
of our complicated society to-day requires a clear understand¬ 
ing of the normal activities of the human body. For this 
reason the book starts with a brief explanation of the work¬ 
ing of the vital machine. 

The functions of the body are then taken up in greater 
detail and are related to the life of the community. Rules 
of conduct for healthful living are developed and applied, 
with special emphasis on the reasons for these rules. Ancient 
traditions of doubtful value are discarded and all precepts 
are modern and scientific. 

The topics are made as practical and interesting as possible, 
not only by simple, common-sense treatment, but by copious 
illustrations and searching questionnaires. These latter are 
put, not at the ends of chapters, but after each topic, so as to 
assure a mastery of the subject in hand, before the pupil 
proceeds. 

Every effort has been made to furnish material which will 
enable the pupil to safeguard his own and the community’s 
health; yet the importance of the physician is recognized 
and consultation with him is urged in all but the very sim¬ 
plest cases of illness. 

The development of civic spirit is one of the definite aims 
of this book. The dependence of community health upon 
personal health is constantly emphasized and the importance 
of quarantine and of precautions against contagion is con¬ 
stantly brought out. 

iii 


IV 


PREFACE 


The author is indebted to his sister, Miss Selma Anderson, 
for aid in planning illustrations, to Miss Mary Dixon, whose 
skillful pen and brush prepared the drawings, and to many 
friends who supplied photographs. 


Thanksgiving, 1922. 


R. E. B. 


CONTENTS 


Chapter I. Life. 

Living substance: its composition, organization, activities, 
needs. 

Chapter II. The Body at Work. 

1. Movements. 2. Food and digestion. 3. Oxygen, breath¬ 
ing. 4. Transportation, blood and lymph. 5. Elimination 
of wastes. 6. Regulation of temperature. 7. Control of 
the body. 8. Sensation. 9. Protection. 

Chapter III. The Treatment of Disease .... 
1. From superstition to science. Charms, mysteries, tradi¬ 
tion, pseudo-science, true science — its devoted workers and 
their wonderful accomplishments. 2. Health and sickness. 
Sickness and remedies, bacteria, the body’s defense, curing and 
avoiding disease. 

Chapter IV. Food. 

1. Principles of selection. 2. Quantity. 3. Articles of 
diet. 4. Care of foods. 5. Cooking. 

Chapter V. Stimulants and Narcotics .... 
Misused beverages and drugs. Their valuable, and their per¬ 
verted uses. Drug habit and recovery. 

Chapter VI. Digestion. 

Eating and the care of the teeth. The stomach’s work and 
ills. Intestinal functions and troubles. 

Chapter VII. The Blood Circulation . 

The heart, the arteries and veins, control of blood supply, 
blood affections, blood fakers. 

Chapter VIII. Air and the Breathing Organs . 

Air passages, their care and obstructions. Dangers in the air. 
Pure air and plenty of it. How we breathe and how to breathe. 


PAGE 

1 

14 

41 

59 

84 

94 

112 

125 


v 



VI 


CONTENTS 


Chapter IX. The Kidneys. 

Their structure and work, difficulties and cautions. 

Chapter X. The Skin. 

How it does its work. Enemies which attack it. How to 
protect and care for it. Hair, nails. Clothing for body. 

Chapter XI. Bone and Muscle. 

How to keep them serviceable. Exercise, games, posture, in¬ 
juries. 

Chapter XII. The Nerve System. 

The central control. Voluntary and involuntary movements. 
Abuse by drugs and by lack of care. Sleep, habit, education. 

Chapter XIII. Eyes and Ears. 

The eye, its structure and working, defects and their remedies, 
care. 

The ear, its working, its affections, cautions. 

Chapter XIV. Some Communicable Diseases 

Smallpox and its prevention. Typhoid fever and how to avoid 
it. Diphtheria, its care and prevention. Tetanus. Rabies. 
Tuberculosis. Sanitary precautions. 

Chapter XV. Safety ' First. 

Our loss through carelessness. Dangers in fire, gas, water. 
Street and railway accidents. Machinery. Poisons. Guns 
and explosives. Play safe! 

Chapter XVI. In Case of Accident. 

Broken bones, sprains, bleeding, burns, frost bite, fainting, 
resuscitation, antiseptics, fumigation, cleanliness. Historical 
sketch of anesthetics and antiseptics. 

Chapter XVII. The Healthful Home. 

Choosing the place, construction, floor, kitchen, Jiath room, 
toilet, water, sewage, garbage, flies. The school house. 

Chapter XVIII. The Government and Health . 

Water supply, sewage, food inspection, building regulation, 
hospitals and sanatoria, health centers, health in school, quaran¬ 
tine, animal pests, nuisances, protection of workers, recreations, 
practitioners of healing, “patent medicines.” An ideal for the 
race. 


PAGE 

147 

152 

170 

188 

202 

215 

231 

249 

263 

279 




LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGURE 


1. 

The Sower. 


• 


Frontispiece 

PAGE 

2. 

Thatcher’s Glen .... 






1 

3. 

A Girl Athlete .... 






2 

4. 

McKinley Park, Sacramento, California 





5 

5. 

Examples of Cells 






7 

6. 

Cell Division .... 






9 

7. 

A Municipal Playground 






11 

8. 

The Framework of Man 






15 

9. 

Arm Muscles . . 






16 

10. 

Tendon Function 






17 

11. 

The Wrist. 






18 

12. 

Muscle Cells .... 






19 

13. 

Diagram of the Digestive Tract . 






20 

14. 

Gastric Glands .... 






21 

15. 

The Salivary Glands . 






22 

16. 

X-ray of the Chest 






23 

17. 

Respiratory Organs 






24 

18. 

Air Sacs of the Lungs . 






25 

19. 

Blood in a Capillary . 






26 

20. 

Phagocytosis .... 






26 

21. 

Iliya Metchnikoff 






27 

22. 

Diagram of Capillaries 






28 

23. 

Diagram of the Blood Circulation. Cobred 




29 

24. 

Kidneys . 






31 

25. 

The Nerve System 






33 

26. 

Cross Section of a Nerve 






34 

27. 

Spinal Cord. 






35 

28. 

The Epidermis .... 






39 

29. 

Louis Pasteur .... 






45 

30. 

Sir Joseph Lister .... 






46 

31. 

Mold, Yeast, and Bacteria . 






49 

32. 

Effect of Soil Bacteria . 






51 

33. 

Chaulmoogra Tree, Leaves and Fruit 

vii 






54 










viii LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 

FIGURE PAGE 

34. A Sanitary Fountain.56 

35. A Chaulmoogra Forest in Burma.57 

36. Cost of Growth-food . ....... 62 

37. Interior of Milk Station.67 

38. A Food Preserver.72 

39. Packing House Workers.73 

40. Milk Receiving Station at Palatine, Ill.74 

41. A Sanitary Counter.75 

42. Home Pasteurizing ........ 77 

43. Breakfast Bacon.78 

44. Pork and Beans..80 

45. Packing Houses.82 

46. Skill and Endurance Impaired by Drink .... 87 

47. Alcohol Impairs Scholarship.89 

48. Alcohol and Pneumonia ....... 90 

49. Smoking Handicaps Students.91 

50. School Lunch. 94 

51. Sections of Teeth ........ 98 

52. Professor Theobald Smith.100 

53. Villi.107 

54. Diagram of a Villus.108 

55. Junction of Small and Large Intestines . . . .110 

56. Diagram of the Heart. Colored, .113 

57. Valves in a Vein.115 

58. Arteries of the Arm and Hand.115 

59. The Malaria Mosquito.119 

60. Major-General William C. Gorgas.121 

61. A Section of the Head and Throat.125 

62. Cilia.126 

63. Air Cavities of the Head.127 

64. Before and After Removal of Adenoids .... 128 

65. “Hold It So” ..132 

66. Air Good to Breathe.133 

67. Conserving the Workman’s Health.135 

68. Pollen Grains.13(j 

69. The Smoke Nuisance.137 

70. Smoke-begrimed.138 

71. Window Open.140 

72. A Humidifier. 142 

73. Fresh-Air School.. . . .143 

74. Breathing Movements ........ 144 












LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS ix 

FIGURE PAGE 

75. Diagram of Kidney Tubules.147 

76. A Kidney Cut in Two.148 

77. Diagrammatic Cross Section of the Skin . . • . 153 

78. Parasites Which Infest the Human Skin .... 156 

79. Paul Ehrlich.161 

80. A Contrast.163 

81. X-ray of a Foot in a Foolish Shoe.164 

82. X-ray of a Foot in a Sensible Shoe.165 

83. Shoes.166 

84. Feet.166 

• 85. X-rays of Arches . '.167 

86. Barefoot Tracks.168 

87. Bobby Anderson.171 

88. Hercules and Jason.172 

89. A Young Champion.174 

90. Home Exercises.179 

91. Stand Straight.180 

92. Sit Straight.181 

93. Hygienic Desks.182 

94. A Good Bearing.183 - 

95. How to Bend Forward.183 

96. Section through the Knee Joint.185 

97. Both Legs Broken.186 

98. Functional Areas of the Cerebrum.189 

99. Nerve Currents.196 

100. A Bird Haunt.200 

101. Diagram of a Camera.202 

102. The Eye in Its Socket. . . . . . . . 203 

103. Changing the Focus.204 

104. Near-sighted Vision.207 

105. Far-sighted Vision.208 

106. A Section through the Ear.212 

107. Vaccination Protects.217 

108. Swat the Fly.220 

109. Emil Adolph Behring.221 

110. Antitoxin Production.222 

111. Antitoxin.223 

112. Robert Koch . . . ..228 

113. Is He Killed?.. . 232 

114. Stop and Look!.239 

115. Dangerous Play.241 














X 


LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIGURE 

116. Machine Guard . 






PAGE 

. 244 

117. 

Artificial Respiration . 






. 255 

118. 

A Poor Place to Live . 






. 263 

119. 

A Good Place to Live . 






. 265 

120. 

Zone the City! 






. 266 

121. 

Air and Sunshine. 






. 267 

122. 

A Hot Air Furnace 






. 268 

123. 

Hot Water Heat . 






. 269 

124. 

O-Cedar Oil Mop 






. 270 

125. 

A Sanitary Well . 






. 271 

126. 

Her Back Yard . 






. 273 

127. 

A Jacketed Stove in a One-Room ! 

School 




. .277 

128. 

Training for Health 






. 278 

129. 

Community Service 






. 280 

130. 

Garbage Collectors 






. 281 

131. 

United States Inspection 






. 282 

132. 

The Stamp of Approval 






. 283 

133. 

Sore Throat. 






. 284 

134. 

Crowded 






. 286 

135. 

A Healthful Home 






. 287 

136. 

A Fresh Air Hospital . 






. 288 

137. 

Homes for Health 






. 289 

138. 

Baby Day . 






. 290 

139. 

Medical Inspection 






. 291 

140. 

Measurements 






. 292 

141. 

Guarding the Threshold 






. 294 

142. 

The Paper Burner 






. 296 

143. 

Clean the Streets! 






. 298 

144. 

Drudgery That Destroys 






. 299 

145. 

Child Labor 






. 300 

146. 

Filling In 






. 301 

147. 

A Public Playground . 






. 302 

148. 

A Lake in Deer Park, Cook County, Chicago 



. 303 

149. 

A School Playground . 






. 305 

150. 

Rudolph Virchow 






. 306 

151. 

Camp Fire Girls in a Publicly Owned “Forest Preserve” 

. 307 









HEALTH 

PUBLIC AND PERSONAL 


CHAPTER I 

LIFE 


Reflect that life, like every other blessing, 

Derives its value from its use alone. 

_ —Samuel Johnson. 


The Boon of Health. — We want to work — to earn our 
living; we want to play — to enjoy our leisure; we want 



Figure 2.— Thatcher’s Glen. 


Here, under giant elms and cottonwoods, flanked by hawthorns and 
with the river in the rear, Chicago parties make holiday, enjoying their 
leisure. 


1 






2 


LIFE 



peace and content in our resting hours. These we can have 
only as we have health. The material luxuries that money 
can buy are insignificant as com¬ 
pared with the boon of health. 
It is told that John D. Rocke¬ 
feller once said he would give 
a million dollars if he could eat 
cheese. 

The activities of a healthy body 
in work and in play are a source 
of satisfaction and joy, depend¬ 
ent on no one's gift. Elemental 
satisfaction lies not in what we 
get but in what we do. We can 
experience this satisfaction only 
by keeping ourselves able to do, 
by living in perfect health. 

Health means a condition in 
which every part of the body is 
acting normally, doing its work 
perfectly. The working of the 
body, activity, is life. Therefore 
our first step in the study of 
keeping in health is to learn 
how life manifests itself in the 
body. 


Keystone View Co. of N. Y. 
Figure 3. — A Girl Athlete. 
This high school girl of Panama 
is an ideal of physical excellence 
which any girl might well emulate. 


How may the most elemental sat¬ 
isfaction in life be secured? What 
is health ? What is the first step in 
our study of maintaining health? 


The Living Substance.— There 

is a substance called protoplasm 
which exists throughout the bodies of plants and animals, 
and which is the only living material we know. In com¬ 
mon plants some of the protoplasm has a coloring sub- 



ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS 3 

stance in it which makes the leaves look green. In the 
blood most of the protoplasm contains a coloring substance 
which makes that fluid look red. Otherwise most protoplasm 
is nearly colorless; it has the appearance of raw white of egg. 

What is protoplasm? How may its appearance vary in living 
things ? 

Molecules and Atoms. — In order to understand the 
make-up of protoplasm we must know something of what 
chemists have learned about matter. Imagine a drop of 
water divided into particles as small as dust, then each of 
these particles again divided into many smaller particles, 
and these smaller particles divided again and again. This 
imaginary process would in time bring us to the smallest 
possible particle of water. This is called a molecule of 
water. The smallest particle of salt is a molecule of salt. 
The smallest particle of sugar is a molecule of sugar. 

Every substance is composed of molecules, but they are 
too small to be seen by the most powerful microscope. How¬ 
ever, by means of an electric current we can divide the 
molecule of water into still smaller particles called atoms. 
But when we divide the molecule of water into atoms, wfe 
no longer have water. We have two gases, hydrogen and 
oxygen. Every molecule of water is made up of two atoms 
of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen. In chemistry H 
stands for hydrogen and O for oxygen, so chemists indicate 
this make-up of the water molecule by the formula H 2 0. 

Explain what a molecule is. Explain what an atom is. 

Elements and Compounds. — Since water is composed of 
two substances we call it a compound. But no one has ever 
been able to separate hydrogen and oxygen into any other 
substances, so we call them simple substances or elements. 
There are only about ninety elements known. All other 
substances in the world are compounds or mixtures of com¬ 
pounds. In nature compounds are constantly being broken 
down into their elements, and the elements reunited into 


4 


LIFE 


other compounds. This is called chemical change. It 
accompanies every activity of life. 

Why is water called a compound? Why is oxygen called an 
element? About how many elements are known to chemists? 
Why is bread a mixture rather than a compound? What have 
compounds to do with life? 

Composition of Protoplasm. — Since the activities of 
life consist (from the chemises standpoint) in building up 
compounds and breaking them down, and since these changes 
take place within the molecule of protoplasm, we must know 
something of the composition of that molecule if we are to 
understand the activities of the body. The molecule of 
protoplasm is one of the largest and most complex molecules 
known. Though it contains many hundred atoms it is 
chiefly composed of four elements, — carbon, hydrogen, 
oxygen, and nitrogen. These elements you have perhaps 
already learned, — carbon as charcoal, pencil leads, or di¬ 
amond, the other three as gases, hydrogen the lightest of 
all substances, not occurring free in nature, oxygen forming 
one fifth and nitrogen four fifths of the atmosphere. 

These four elements are all contained in the food we eat. 
In the process of building up the protoplasm molecule, 
atoms of each element in the required number are taken 
from the food and joined together to form the living com¬ 
pound. In the breaking down process these atoms are 
released from their union in the large protoplasm molecule 
and make new combinations in smaller molecules. This 
is explained more fully on pages 10, 12, and 20. 

Name the four chief elements of protoplasm. In what forms 
have you seen carbon? What sort of substance is hydrogen? 
What is oxygen and where does it exist free? Nitrogen? 

Cells. — The protoplasm of a plant or animal is found in 
very small particles called cells. Each cell has a very thin 
covering or cell wall. Commonly some of the protoplasm 
which composes the cell is denser than the remainder and 


CELLS 


5 


is gathered together into a little body called the nu'cle-us. 
The nucleus can move about within the cell; it changes 
its form very much with some of the cell’s activities. These 
cells together with the fluids, fibers, and minerals which lie 
between them make up the body. They have been likened 
to the bricks which compose a wall. The comparison is 



Figure 4. — McKinley Park, Sacramento, California. 


This park, with its ball ground, tennis courts, boats, play apparatus, and 
club house, well exemplifies the modern thought that wholesome recreation 
is a necessity in healthful living. 

good, though the cells do not have such a regular arrange¬ 
ment, and the “ mortar ” between them is sometimes more 
than the “ brick.” 

On the other hand, the differences between the cells of 
the body and the bricks of a wall are very great. Since 
protoplasm has the power of movement, the cell is an active 
bit of matter. Muscle cells, for example, have the pecul¬ 
iar power of contracting to produce movements of the body. 
The cells of the sweat glands produce perspiration. In 






6 


LIFE 


short, the cells are more than building material; they do. 
all the work of the body. 

Cells have the power of communicating with neighbor 
cells. They also respond to outside influences. Changes 
of light and of heat, an electric current, a touch, produce' 
responses in the protoplasm of cells. 

Of what is a cell composed? What is the nucleus of a cell? 
In what respects are the cells of the body and the bricks of a wall 
similar, and in what important respects do they differ? 

Sizes of Cells. — In size cells differ greatly. A large cell 
is one fiftieth or one hundredth of an inch in diameter. A 
common sized human cell is one two-thousandth of an inch 
across. Some small cells have a diameter of one ten-thou¬ 
sandth of an inch. The body contains cells of many different 
sizes. Those of adults are no larger than those of infants, 
but there are more of them. 

How many large cells side by side would extend an inch? How 
many medium sized cells would there be to an inch? How many 
small ceffs? Do you grow simply by increase in the size of cells? 

Form and Arrangement of Cells. — In form and arrange¬ 
ment cells are adapted to the work they have to do. If a 
cell’s work is to exert a pull by shortening itself (muscle) 
it will be long and narrow. If a cell is to receive and send 
out communications (nerve cell) it will have branches for 
many contact points. If a group of cells is to act as a pave¬ 
ment on an exposed surface, as the skin and the lining of 
the mouth, each cell will be thin and flat and will overlap 
its fellows, like shingles. If cells are to secrete a watery 
fluid they will be plump and arranged in a single layer 
around the tube which carries off the fluid. If a cell is to 
be used for storage it will be about as nearly spherical as it 
can be with the other cells pressing against it. 

Why have cells various shapes? Give the reason for the shape 
of each cell in the accompanying figure. 


FORM AND ARRANGEMENT OF CELLS 


7 



Figure 5. — Examples of Cells. 


A. Three muscle cells, each with a nucleus, magnified 300 times. B. A 
train cell, magnified 400 times. C . A cross section of a stomach gland 
magnified 200 times, and a lengthwise section of the same gland. D. 
Fat cells, each containing a droplet of oil, magnified 400 times. E. A 
bone cell, magnified 1000 times. 

1. About what portion of an inch in diameter is the drawing of a fat 
cell? 

2. Since the drawing is 400 times the size of the real cell how large 
would the cell be ? 

3. Compute the size of each kind of cell here shown. 

4. How are the cells of the stomach gland arranged with reference to the 
tube which carries away the fluid they secrete ? 

5. Does the form of a brain cell adapt it to receive nerve currents from 
one source, or from many sources ? 

6. Which kind of cell is best adapted to contracting (shortening) ? 







8 


LIFE 


Tissue. — Cells in some cases fit tight against one another, 
and in other cases are separated by a substance lying be¬ 
tween them. Bones, for example, have a stony matter in 
the considerable spaces between the cells, and tendons, the 
straps that fasten muscles to bones, are largely composed 
of stout threads which lie between the cells. Substances 
that lie between the cells are called intercellular material. 
A group of cells of any kind, together with their intercellu¬ 
lar material, is called tissue. We speak of brain tissue, liver 
tissue, kidney tissue, bone tissue, cartilage tissue, fat tissue, 
etc. 

Give a definition of tissue. Name examples of tissue. What 
is the meaning of the prefix inter in the word intercellular % 

Connective Tissue. — In bones, in tendons, and in the 
tough tissue that holds the bones together, the quantity of 
intercellular matter is large. This makes the tissue very 
strong. Such tissue is called connective tissue. It supports 
and binds together parts of the body. The strong inter¬ 
cellular material is the chief part of this tissue, and its cells 
serve to produce and repair it. On the other hand, in the 
brain, the muscles, and the glands, the cells are the impor¬ 
tant part of the tissue. Only a little intercellular fibrous 
structure is needed to support the cells, since it is the func¬ 
tion, or duty, of these tissues to work, not to serve as sup¬ 
porting or binding material for other tissues. 

What is the characteristic structure of connective tissue ? 
What is its work? Why are there intercellular fibers in other 
tissues? What makes bones and tendons so strong? Why do 
the brain cells, and glands need but little connecting fiber in their 
make-up ? 

Lymph. — In little spaces which are distributed through 
all tissue there is a watery fluid called lymph. The lymph 
is the liquid part of the blood which has oozed through the 
walls of the smallest blood tubes, which are called cap'- 
illaries. As soon as this liquid has passed from the cap- 


WHAT LIFE IS 


9 


illaries into the intercellular spaces it is called lymph. As 
it flows slowly about among the cells, it brings them food 
and oxygen, and gathers up their wastes. Then with its 
load of wastes it goes 
back into the blood. 

What is lymph? De¬ 
scribe its movements. 

Summary. — You will 
find the following ways 
of thinking of the body 
convenient and helpful: 

The body is a sack of 
moving liquids (blood, 
lymph) encased in a skin 
almost water-tight. It 
is shaped over a frame¬ 
work of connective tis¬ 
sues (bones and their 
binding straps). On this 
support the softer and 
more active tissues are 
fastened. It is every¬ 
where alive because in 
all its parts is protoplasm 
in cells which are ar¬ 
ranged either side by 
side in compact masses 
or with intercellular sub¬ 
stances between them. 



These seven views represent a cell dur¬ 
ing the process of division. The star-like 
body seems to be a center around which 
the activities proceed. The granules of 
the nucleus in A have in B arranged them¬ 
selves in lines, — a certain definite num¬ 
ber for each plant or animal. In cell 
division each line of the nucleus divides, 
thus preserving the characteristic number. 

The body is an aggregation of mu¬ 
tually dependent living beings (cells) immersed in a salt sea 
(lymph, blood). 

What Life Is. — We all have a hazy notion of what life 
is, but we can get a more definite idea of it by learning the 
activities common to all life. In the first place motion — 
movement arising from a power within'—is a character- 





10 


LIFE 


istic of life. We distinguish a living animal from a dead one 
by its power to move. In plants and in animals which grow 
fixed, with no power of locomotion, there is nevertheless 
movement wdthin the cells. Movement is characteristic 
of all life. 

Another distinguishing feature of life is growth. Growth 
consists of several processes. Every cell at some time as¬ 
similates food, that is, it takes various food substances, 
breaks up the molecules of which they are composed, and 
combines the atoms so obtained into molecules of proto¬ 
plasm, thus increasing the quantity of live protoplasm in 
the cell. Another process in growth is cell division. Cells 
do not increase in size indefinitely. When a cell reaches 
a certain limit it divides into two cells, each complete but of 
small size. Each small cell assimilates food until it reaches 
its limit, then divides. A third process in the growth of 
tissue consists in the production of intercellular material. 
The cells take from the food the substances required and 
build them into intercellular fibers or mineral. 

Another characteristic of life is the cell activity called 
oxidation. In the inanimate world the burning of fuel is 
an example of oxidation. The oxygen of the air combines 
with certain elements of the fuel, producing heat. Heat 
is a form of energy —which is another way of saying that 
heat has the ability to do work. 

In the animate world the process of oxidation in the cell 
is practically like the burning of fuel in a furnace. Oxygen 
is brought into the cell and combines with some of the mole¬ 
cules, burning them up and so transforming their energy 
into heat and activity. Without oxidation in the cell we 
could have no muscle work, no brain work. Oxidation in 
the cell is as necessary to any bodily activity as oxidation 
in the fire-box of an engine is necessary to mechanical 
motion. 

Life, then, consists of certain activities. Those discussed 


THE CYCLE OF LIFE 


11 



above motion, growth, and oxidation — are common to 
all cells. The peculiar duties of various kinds of cells you 
will learn as you study the functions of the different parts 
of the body. 

Name the activities common to all cells. What, is meant by 
assimilation? What is energy? What is oxidation? Name three 
processes involved in growth. 


Figure 7. — A Municipal Playground. 

These children are experiencing a healthful breaking down of muscle 
cells. Every city should provide its children a safe place to play in the 
fresh air. It is a matter of health, safety, and education. 

The Cycle of Life. — The chief activities of all cells may 
be restated as an alternation of processes, building up fol¬ 
lowed by breaking down. A muscle cell builds up by as¬ 
similating food. Then it breaks down by oxidation of many 
of its molecules in order to supply the energy for muscular 
contraction. A brain cell while you are sleeping assimilates 
food till it becomes plump and full; then while you are 
thinking or working it oxidizes, molecule after molecule, 



12 


LIFE 


until it becomes ragged and nearly worn out. Cells build 
up that they may break down. The breaking down is the 
end for which the cell exists. Thus life is a cycle of chemi¬ 
cal changes. 

What is meant by the cell’s cycle of life? Why is it desirable 
that a cell break down? 

Cell Needs. — Out of the activities of the cells arise cer¬ 
tain needs. If the cell is to grow or to replace its broken- 
down parts it must have food. In order to break down by 
the process of oxidation the cell must be supplied with 
oxygen. In this process of oxidation certain wastes are pro¬ 
duced just as ashes and gases are produced in a furnace. 
The chief of these wastes are carbon diox'id (a gas resulting 
from the oxidation of carbon), water (produced by the oxi¬ 
dation of hydrogen), and certain substances containing 
nitrogen. Just as ashes must be removed to prevent their 
choking the fire and putting it out, so these wastes must be 
removed from the cell. This is done by the blood and lymph 
which move past the cell. 

Another need of the cell is suitable temperature. Pro¬ 
toplasm can live only within certain temperature limits. 
These limits differ much for different cells. Our skin cells 
can endure a temperature of freezing for a short time and 
also a temperature of hot water, perhaps 120 degrees. The 
cells of the brain, liver, and other internal organs, when the 
body is in a healthy state, do not vary more than a degree 
or two from the normal, 98.6 degrees in the mouth. In 
sickness their temperature may go up or down ten or twelve 
degrees, but such changes are very serious. 

List under four heads the needs of the cell. Why is food needed ? 
Why is oxygen needed? Why must waste be removed from the 
cell? Discuss the range of temperature tolerable to protoplasm. 

Supplying the Needs.— Every cell in the body has the 
needs named above. The body as a whole provides for the 


SUPPLYING THE NEEDS 


13 


needs of its own cells. It supplies the food and the oxygen, 
removes the wastes, and adjusts the temperature for the 
various cells. How it supplies its own needs is the problem, 
or rather series of problems, that will occupy our attention 
in this course. 

The body differs from man-made machines in that it is 
self-managing and self-repairing. The parts all work in 
harmony to provide just the conditions necessary for the 
work of the whole human machine. If we are to be our 
own engineers we shall have to study the machine carefully, 
that our treatment of it may keep it working smoothly and 
not upset its delicate adjustments. 

How does the body differ from man-made machines? Why do 
we need to study the human mechanism carefully? 


CHAPTER II 
THE BODY AT WORK 


A sound mind in a sound body is a short but full description 
of a happy state in this world. 

— John Locke. 


The Activity of the Body. — In preparing to study this 
machine, our body, we ought first to get a general idea of 
how it works. To give such an idea is the aim of this chap¬ 
ter. Any plant or animal is called an organism. Its parts 
all cooperate to supply its own needs. The human organism 
is the body working as a unit, all parts cooperating to pro¬ 
vide for the needs of every part. 

As we go on in the succeeding chapters to take up in de¬ 
tail various studies in individual and community health, 
we shall understand them the better for being able to relate 
them to the organic activities of the body. We can not get 
the best out of the practical studies that follow unless we 
first learn thoroughly the organic activities in this chapter. 

To make the chapter simpler and clearer it is divided into 
nine sections, which illustrate the various functions of the 
body. These are: (1) movements, (2) food, (3) oxygen, 
(4) transportation, (5) elimination of wastes, (6) regula¬ 
tion of temperature, (7) control of the body, (8) sensation, 
and (9) protection. 

Section 1. Movements 

Transformation of Energy. — The muscles and bones 
compose most of the body. They have for their function 
the movements of the entire body or of its parts. This 

14 




THE FRAMEWORK OF MAN 


15 



Figure 8.— The Framework of Man. 









































































16 


THE BODY AT WORK 


means the transforming of energy, which is supplied in the 
form of food and oxygen. The food must be obtained, 
taken in, prepared for the cells (digested), and transported 
by the blood along with oxygen to the muscle cells. There 
it is oxidized to liberate energy, and this energy the cells 
transform into motion. 


Muscles and Tendons. — The muscle is composed of 
long cells or fibers. To produce motion the fibers contract. 



Figure 9. — Arm Muscles. 

These muscles are used in bending and in straightening the elbow. 

This draws on the bone to which the muscle is fastened and 
so produces movement in the skeleton. For example, when 
the arm is held out straight the forearm may be drawn up¬ 
ward and backward toward the head by the contraction of 
the muscle called bl' ceps acting on the bones of the arm 
as levers. It is thrust out again by the contraction of an¬ 
other muscle called trl'ceps. Muscles exert force only in 
contraction. 

The muscles are fastened to the bones sometimes directly 
and sometimes by means of tendons. The tendons, as has 
been said, are composed chiefly of long parallel threads of 



INVOLUNTARY MOVEMENT 


17 


intercellular fibers, the toughest structure in the body. By 
means of long tendons, muscles can be situated at some con¬ 
venient place and yet produce movement in a part of the 
body at a distance. For example, the muscles that bend 
the fingers are in the arm near the elbow, | 

and the muscles that lift the toes are in 
the shin. 

Bones and Ligaments. — To serve as 
strong levers for the movements of the 
body the bones are made stiff by stony 
material like marble or limestone, which 
is deposited between the cells all through 
the bone. Stony matter alone would be 
brittle. To make the bone tough there 
is mingled everywhere with the stone be¬ 
tween the cells an animal or gristly ma¬ 
terial. Where two bones meet at a mov¬ 
able joint they are fastened together by 
strips of tissue like tendon called liga¬ 
ments. The joint cavity is lined with 
smooth membrane, the synovial sac, always 
kept slippery by a watery fluid, so that 
there is practically no friction in the 
movement. 

Involuntary Movement. — Most of the 
muscles of the body are fairly large and 
attached to the skeleton ; that is, the bony 
framework of the body. These produce our nected by a long ten- 
common visible movements, but there are don with the finger 
other muscles to produce other move- whlch l[ moves, 
ments. In the stomach wall, for example, is a sheet of 
muscle, thick and strong, to knead the food during the 
process of gastric (stomach) digestion. Throughout the 
wall of the digestive tube are thin sheets of muscle whose 
contractions cause the food to move along. In the walls 



Figure 10. — Tendon 
Function. 

A muscle situated 
near the elbow is con- 














18 


THE BODY AT WORK 


of arteries and veins are thin sheets of muscle whose 
cells, running around the tubes, contract to make them 
smaller when less blood is to be carried through them. The 
heart is a mass of muscle which contracts oftener than once 
a second to force the blood through the body. 

How do muscle cells transform food energy into motion? Give 
as many reasons as you can think of why movement is necessary. 
How do muscles and bones cooperate to produce motion? What 
is a tendon or sinew? Why is it so tough? Where are a few of 
the longest tendons of the body? 



Figure 11. — The Wrist. 


The first sketch shows the bones with the synovial sacs (darkly shaded) 
between them. The second sketch shows the ligaments which bind the 
bones together. 

Of what two kinds of material is bone mainly composed ? What 
is the chief advantage of this combination of material? 

What are ligaments? How is friction at a joint prevented? 

Why is there need of muscle in the wall of the intestines? Why 
should the sheet of muscle in the stomach wall be heavier than the 
intestinal muscle? How is the blood made to flow through the 
arteries ? 

Section 2. Food 

Food for Building and Repair (Protein). — Every cell of 
the body needs food. The kind and quantity of food de- 



FOOD FOR BUILDING AND REPAIR 


19 


pends on the use the cell makes of it. All cells while grow¬ 
ing need food which contains all the elements of which pro¬ 
toplasm is composed (chiefly carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and 
nitrogen). This is supplied by foods containing prd'te-in. 
Our chief protein foods are meat, fish, eggs, milk, and 



Figure 12. — Muscle Cells. 


A. Three smooth muscle cells from the wall of the stomach. B. Muscle 
cells from the heart. C. Portions of two fibers or cells of a skeletal 
muscle. The fibers are so long that they can not be shown entire. The 
smooth cells are most magnified and those of the skeletal muscle least. 

1. Cells of which variety of muscle have many nuclei ? 

2. Which cells have a branch at one side ? 

3. Point out any other differences you can see between these three kinds 
of muscles. 

the legumes. But water and certain mineral compounds are 
also necessary for making protoplasm. The minerals we 
get to a small extent from drinking water, but chiefly from 
meat and vegetables. Cells which are very active have 
many of their molecules broken down in their activity 
and require for building up new molecules the same kinds 
of food (protein) as for growth. 
















20 


THE BODY AT WORK 


Food for Energy. — The more active cells, as muscle and 
nerve cells, oxidize a great deal to liberate the energy for 

their activity. To supply ma¬ 
terial for oxidizing, the food 
does not need to contain all 
the elements of protoplasm as 
does food for building and re¬ 
pair. But it must contain 
carbon which combines with 
oxygen to give energy when 
the cell breaks down. Though 
protein may be oxidized to 
supply energy, the foods which 
are best for this purpose are 
the fats and the carbohy'drates 
(starches and sugars). The 
carbohydrates we get chiefly 
in bread, cereals, vegetables 
and fruits. These foods are 
composed of carbon (C), hy¬ 
drogen (H), and oxygen (O) 
only. When carbon oxidizes, 
it unites with the oxygen and 
forms a compound called car¬ 
bon dioxid, which chemists in¬ 
dicate by the formula (C0 2 ). 
The hydrogen and oxygen 
combining form water, H 2 0. 
(See page 3.) 

Protein foods contain nitro¬ 
gen as well as carbon, hydro¬ 
gen, and oxygen. Therefore 



Figure 13.— Diagram of the Diges¬ 
tive Tract (front view). 

1. Name in order the parts of the 
digestive tract. 

2. What large digestive gland lies 
in the upper part, right side, of the 
abdomen, overlapping the stomach 
to the dotted line ? 

3. In what part of the abdomen 
does the small intestine join the large 
intestine (the colon) ? 


when a protein oxidizes there are certain nitrogenous wastes 
formed in addition to carbon dioxid and water. Getting 
rid of these nitrogenous wastes puts an extra strain on the 




DIGESTIVE FLUIDS 


21 



kidneys. Since we need less food for growth than for energy, 
it is better to eat more abundantly of the carbohydrates 
and fats than of the proteins. 

The Digestive Tract. — The digestive tract is a tube 
about twenty-five feet in length extending through the body. 
The stomach is an enlargement 
of this tube. Its function is to 
store the food, partly digest it, 
and pass it on to the small intes¬ 
tine a little at a time. The small 
intestine, as large in diameter as 
the thumb and some twenty feet 
in length, lies coiled in the mid¬ 
dle of the abdo'men. The large 
intestine, nearly as large in di¬ 
ameter as the wrist and about 
five feet long, begins where the 
small intestine ends, in the right 
lower part of the abdomen, ex¬ 
tends up along the right side, 
crosses over below the liver and 
stomach, turns down to the left 
lower part of the abdomen, bends 
across to the middle and then 
straight down to the end. 

Digestive Fluids. — Through¬ 
out the length of the digestive 
tube is a lining called mucous 
membrane. This membrane pro¬ 
duces digestive fluids — abun¬ 
dantly in the stomach and small intestine, where most of the 
digestion takes place. The saVivary glands, opening into 
the mouth, and the liver and pancreas in the abdomen con¬ 
tribute digestive juices which enter the tract through pas¬ 
sages called ducts. 


Figure 14. — Gastric Glands. 

A surface view of the mucous 
membrane of the stomach, 
showing folds of the membrane 
and the mouths of many gastric 
glands, magnified. 



22 


THE BODY AT WORK 


Digestion. — The object of digestion is to reduce the 
food to a liquid, that it may go through the mucous mem¬ 
brane of the intestines and the walls of the capillaries; and 
to bring it to such a chemical condition that the cells can 
assimilate it. The mechanical part of this work is done 

mostly in the mouth, where 
the food is chewed into small 
fragments, and in the stomach, 
where by a kneading pro¬ 
cess it is mixed with digestive 
juices. The chemical part of 
the work is done by substances 
in the various juices which 
cause the food to take up wa¬ 
ter and break into other foods 
having smaller molecules. 
These substances are digestive 
agents called en'zymes. In 
this process of digestion the 
carbohydrates are all changed 
to glucose (a kind of sugar); 
the proteins to other nitrogenous substances. The fats and 
oils are broken up to get them through the lining of the 
intestine but they are changed back to oils before they get 
into the blood. 

Absorption and Refuse. — When the food has been di¬ 
gested it is absorbed into the blood, mostly in the small 
intestine, leaving in the large intestine the fe'ces. These 
are composed of the indigestible woody and tough parts of 
what we eat, together with excretions from the liver and 
intestinal glands. 

How do proteins differ in composition from fats and carbohy¬ 
drates? Why should we eat more carbohydrates and fats than 
proteins ? From what foods do we get the minerals needed in the 
body? 



Figure 15. — The Salivary 
Glands. 

Give the locations of the openings 
of the salivary ducts. 




ABSORPTION AND REFUSE 


23 


What is accomplished in the digestive process? In what two 
organs is most of the mechanical work of digestion accomplished? 
What are the enzymes? What changes does the process of diges¬ 
tion bring about in carbohydrates ? In proteins ? In fats ? 



Figure 16.— X-ray of the Chest. 

The trachea and bronchial tubes of a dead body are filled with a metal 
paste to make them opaque for the X-ray. They show dark in the illustra¬ 
tion. The smallest tubes and air sacs did not in most places fill with the 
paste and consequently do not show. Where the air sacs did fill they 
make the large blotches. 

1. Into how many large bronchial tubes does the trachea divide at its 
lower end ? 

2. Sketch a small portion of the right upper “bronchial tree” to show 
the plan of branching. 




24 


THE BODY AT WORK 


What are the parts of the digestive tract? Where are digestive 
fluids produced? In what part of the digestive tract does most 
of the absorption take place? Of what are the feces composed? 


Section 3. Oxygen 

Getting Oxygen. — The process of getting oxygen is a 
very easy matter. One fifth of the air all about us is oxygen. 
The oxygen would go through the skin and so supply our 
needs but for two things: first, the skin is too thick, almost 

gas-tight; second, its sur¬ 
face is not large enough. 
Therefore, we have a spe¬ 
cial breathing organ, the 
lungs, which are situated 
along with the heart in the 
chest or thorax. 

Breathing. — To get air 
into the lungs we breathe. 
The rhythmic movement 
of the body in breathing 
is much like the working 
of a bellows. The floor of 
the chest ( di'aphragm ) 



Lung 

Spinal 

Column 


Figure 17. — Respiratory Organs. 

This diagram represents the main di¬ 
visions of the “bronchial tree.” The 
next figure shows the way in which each 
small bronchial tube ends in an irregular and a set of muscles in the 
chamber where the gases are exchanged side walls contract to make 
withthebl00d - the chest larger. This 

makes the air pressure within less than that without, and 
the outside air pushes in. Then abdominal muscles and a 
different set of chest muscles contract to push up the dia¬ 
phragm and move the walls in so as to make the chest 
smaller. This puts the air in the lungs under greater pres¬ 
sure than the air outside and drives some of it out. 

The Lungs. — When we breathe, the air goes through 
the tra'chea (windpipe) and bronchial tubes to the air sacs, 
which are arranged at the ends of the bronchial tubes some¬ 
thing as leaves on the twigs of a tree. These air sacs are 





BLOOD AND LYMPH 


25 


lined with a thin membrane, on the other side of which is a 
network of blood capillaries. There are so many million 
air sacs that, though each is as small as a needle’s eye, the 
total surface of their lining membrane is hundreds of square 
feet. The air in the sacs con¬ 
tains comparatively more oxygen 
than does the blood. Therefore 
some of the oxygen diffuses 
(flows) through the membrane 
from the air into the blood, where 
it is loaded into the red cor¬ 
puscles and so carried to all 
parts of the body. 

Why does the oxygen not enter the 
body through the skin ? What is the 
purpose of breathing? Describe the 
process of breathing. How is it pos¬ 
sible for the lungs to have hundreds 
of feet of lining membrane exposed 
to the air ? Where are the air sacs sit¬ 
uated and how are they constructed ? 

Where is your trachea? Where are 
your bronchial tubes? What makes the oxygen go from the air 
sac into the blood ? 

Section 4. Transportation 

Blood and Lymph. — The work of carrying substances 
from one part of the body to another is done by the blood 
and the lymph. They are kept in motion, streams running 
to all parts of the body through containing tubes (arteries, 
capillaries and veins) chiefly by the action of the heart. 
Whatever is in these moving streams is carried along. The 
chief substances to be transported are food, oxygen, carbon 
dioxid, nitrogenous wastes, and white blood corpuscles. 

The food and nitrogenous wastes are dissolved in the 
watery part of the blood, called plasm. But this warm 
fluid can dissolve very little gas; and therefore the two 



Figure 18. —Air Sacs of 
the Lungs. 


The atrium at the end of the 
bronchial tube is the “ hall-way ” 
from which the sacs open. The 
walls of the atrium and sacs are 
covered with a network of cap¬ 
illaries connecting the arteries 
with the veins. 



26 


THE BODY AT WORK 


gases, oxygen and carbon dioxid, must be carried in some 
other way. 


Corpuscles. — This 
other way is provided by 
the red corpuscles in the 
blood. These are mod¬ 
ified cells especially 
adapted to carry oxygen. 
They exist in such great 
numbers that they form 
about half the weight of 
the blood and give the 
blood its characteristic 
color. There are about 
5 millions of them in 
every drop of blood as 
large as the head of a 
pin. 

These red corpuscles 
can hold many times 

Between the corpuscles, floating them a ? much as can 

along, is the stream of watery plasm. dissolve in the pltiSItl. 
One white corpuscle is shown moving When the red corpuscles 
through the wall of the capillary. give up their loads of 



oxygen to the tis¬ 
sues, they take on 
some of the car¬ 
bon dioxid waste 
to be returned to 
the lungs. The 
carbon dioxid, lit¬ 
tle of which dis- 
solves in the 
plasm, unites with 
other substances 




* 


£0 n % 




► 


* ” * m 

to v. « n ,9 * : V' : , ■ 

* ** 

Figure 20. — Phagocytosis. 

These two white corpuscles (phagocytes) have 
engulfed many bacteria of brain fever 
peculiar large nuclei of the corpuscles. 


Note the 






THE BLOOD TUBES 


27 



in the blood to form compounds that will dissolve. Thus it 
is carried back to the lungs, where these compounds are 
broken down and the carbon dioxid is expelled by breathing. 

The blood also contains 
many white corpuscles , 
cells whose work is to de¬ 
stroy bacteria, the tiny 
forms of life that cause 
disease. There is one 
white cell for about every 
600 or 800 red corpuscles 
when the body is in nor¬ 
mal health, but the num¬ 
ber increases as the num¬ 
ber of hostile bacteria 
increases in the body. 

The white cells float along 
in the blood stream like 
policemen patrolling a 
beat. When they are 
needed at any particular 
place they drop out of the 
stream and collect in 
large numbers to fight the 
bacteria. If the germs to 
be fought are outside the 
blood-tubes, the white 
cells worm their way through the capillary walls and skir¬ 
mish about in the lymph spaces. When a white cell en¬ 
counters a germ, it wraps itself about its enemy and thus 
devours it. 

The Blood Tubes. — The arteries are the tubes or vessels 
which carry the blood from the heart to all parts of the body. 
They are much like the branches of a tree, dividing into 
smaller branches as they get farther from the trunk. The 


Figure 21. — Iliya Metchnikoff, 
1845-1916. 

This Russian was a profound student of 
the lower forms of life. He proved that 
the white blood cells destroy bacteria in 
the body and so cure disease. He was 
made director of the Pasteur Institute on 
the death of Louis Pasteur. 



28 


THE BODY AT WORK 



smallest blood tubes, capillaries, receive the blood from the 
smallest arteries and carry it to the smallest veins, which 
join to form larger veins that carry the blood back to the 
heart. So long as this system of blood tubes remains un¬ 
broken the blood flows in 


Figure 22 . — Diagram of Capillaries. 

This figure illustrates a network of 
capillaries into which the blood is brought 
by small arteries and from which it is 
drained by veins. 


it, going round and round 
in its circuit from the 
heart through the ar¬ 
teries, the capillaries, the 
veins, and back to the 
heart; then through the 
lungs and back to the 
heart again. 

The capillaries, making 
a fine network in every 
part of the body, are the 
delivery lines of the trans¬ 
portation system in which 
the blood receives and 
gives up its loads. They 
have unimaginably thin 
walls. As the blood goes 
along the capillary tubes 
from the arteries to the 


veins a portion of the plasm soaks or is forced through these 
thin walls and gets into all the minute spaces between the 
cells all over the body. This fluid, as has been said before, 
we call lymph. After it gives its food and oxygen to the cells 
and takes from the cells the carbon dioxid and nitrogenous 
wastes, which have been formed by oxidation, it returns to 
the blood. It returns in two ways: some of it with its wastes 
goes right back through the capillary walls into the blood 
stream; the rest is gathered up in a separate system of 
tubes, the lymphatics , and is carried up to a large vein in the 
left side of the neck where it also joins the blood stream. 




THE BLOOD TUBES 


29 



Figure 23. — Diagram of the Blood Circulation. 

The dotted lines represent the small vessels which extend from large 
arteries to large veins. With a pointer trace the course of the blood from 
the left side of the heart (the reader’s right) through the aorta and one of 
its branches to a leg, and then (following the arrows) back to the heart, 
from there to a lung, and back to the left side of the heart. In the same 
way trace the blood course to each of the following and back to the starting 
point: a kidney, an arm, the liver, the intestines. 

















30 


THE BODY AT WORK 


What are the chief substances that the blood has to transport? 
How are food and nitrogenous wastes carried? What are the red 
corpuscles and what service do they perform ? Tell how the white 
cells of the blood protect the body. Describe briefly the circula¬ 
tion of the blood from the heart back to the heart. Explain fully 
why the circulation of blood in the capillaries is important. How 
is lymph returned to the blood ? 

Section 5. Elimination of Wastes 

We have seen that whenever protoplasm oxidizes, as 
muscle cells do when we move and brain cells do when we 
feel, think, or act, certain wastes are produced, — carbon 
dioxid and several substances containing nitrogen. 

By the Lungs. — The first of these wastes, carbon dioxid, 
would diffuse out of the body wherever it could, since there 
is relatively so much of it in the body and so little outside. 
But the only place where it can get out in quantities that 
amount to anything is the lungs. While the oxygen is com¬ 
ing from the air sacs into the blood the carbon dioxid is 
moving through the same membrane from the blood into the 
air sacs. When we exhale, the carbon dioxid is thrown out 
into the air. 

By the Kidneys. — The nitrogenous waste is removed 
from the blood chiefly by the kidneys, a pair of organs in 
the back part of the abdomen. It is carried in the blood as 
urea , dissolved in the plasm. As the blood circulates 
through the kidneys considerable water containing urea in 
solution filters through the kidney cells and is carried by a 
tube from each kidney to the bladder, where it is stored as 
urine until it is discharged. The kidney cells have the 
power of letting the waste, urea, together with salts which 
are in the blood, go through with the water, but they hold 
back in the blood almost all of the things the body needs, — 
sugar and protein foods. 

By the Skin, Liver, and Intestine. —The skin, through 
the sweat glands, removes from the blood a little waste 


ELIMINATION OF WASTES 


31 


similar to the urine, but when a person is in health the 
quantity is very small. 

The liver, a large gland in the right part of the abdomen, 
takes certain nitrogenous wastes out of the blood and passes 
them in the bile to the intestine. Much of the bile is ab¬ 
sorbed with the food in the intestine, but the wastes, which 



Suprarenal 

Gland’ 


Left Kidney 


Ureter 


Abdominal 

Aorta 


Bladder 


Urethra" 


Right Kidney 


Lower 
Vena Cava 


Figure 24. — Kidneys. 

The left kidney is sliced open to show the collecting chamber (pelvis) 
from which the urine is drained through the ureter into the bladder. 

are in the form of solid grains, pass along and are discharged 
in the feces. The intestinal mucous membrane also ex¬ 
cretes certain nitrogenous wastes that are carried away with 
the feces. 

How does there come to be waste in the cells? How is the car¬ 
bon dioxid removed from the blood ? What is the chief way in 
which nitrogenous waste is removed? Why is the kidney some- 





32 


THE BODY AT WORK 


times called a “ selective filter ”? What is the second important 
way in which nitrogenous waste is removed? Why are not the 
wastes of the bile largely absorbed as they go along through the in¬ 
testines? In what other way is a very small quantity of waste 
taken from the blood ? 

Section 6. Regulation of Temperature 

Control of Heat by the Skin. — All our activity produces 
heat. That our temperature may remain constant we have 
to get rid of the heat as fast as it is produced and no faster. 
When we are very active we produce much heat and when 
inactive we produce little. Therefore, we must occasionally 
get rid of several times as much heat in a minute as at other 
times. To some extent we control our rate of cooling by 
artificial means, — fire, bath, change of clothing. But the 
body itself must do the fine work of precise adjustment. 

The body controls its loss of heat in two ways. The skin 
always radiates heat, more rapidly when it is warm, less 
rapidly when it is cool. The temperature of the skin depends 
internally on the quantity of blood sent through it. When 
we are producing much heat our body automatically sends 
much blood into the skin, making it hot so that it radiates 
much. When we produce little heat little blood is sent to 
the skin; it is cool and radiates little. 

The other means of cooling the skin is by the evaporation 
of perspiration. When we are producing much heat by our 
activity, much perspiration is made to flow out on the skin. 
The more liquid evaporated, the greater the loss of heat from 
the skin. When we are comparatively inactive and produc¬ 
ing little heat, little perspiration is formed, and little heat 
is lost by its evaporation. Much vapor in the air retards 
evaporation and interferes seriously with temperature regu¬ 
lation. That is why we feel warmer on a muggy day than 
on a dry one. A breeze, on the other hand, carries away 
the vapor and facilitates evaporation. 


THE NERVE SYSTEM 


33 


When we have a fever the flow of perspiration is 
checked and our temperature runs up. In illness some¬ 
times the production of 
heat does not keep up 
with its loss and the 
temperature goes down. 

In exposure to intense 
cold the heat produc¬ 
tion can not always 
keep up with the loss 
and a serious decrease 
in temperature results. 

In health, however, un¬ 
der ordinary circum¬ 
stances the body can so 
nicely adjust its loss of 
heat to its production 
as to maintain an al¬ 
most perfectly uniform 
temperature. 


By what two methods 
does the body control its 
loss of heat automatically? 
How can the skin be made 
to radiate more heat at 
one time than at another ? 
Why does the skin not 
cool well on a sultry day? 
How can a gentle breeze 
which is warmer than the 
body cool it? Why does 
the temperature go up in 
fever ? 



Figure 25. —The Nerve System. 


Section 7. Control of the Body 
The Nerve System. — That all the activities of the body 
may harmonize, that one muscle may cooperate with an- 


34 


THE BODY AT WORK 


other instead of working at cross purposes, that the glands 
may secrete at the proper time and only then, they must all 
be under the direction of one central control. The nerve 
system forms such a directing center. Its structure is 

adapted to its work. The 
centers of control are called 
gan'glia. They are composed 
of large nerve cells having a 
few large branches which sub¬ 
divide into a great many 
small ones. Through these 
minute branches, some of 
which are extended in fine 
threads two or three feet 
long, the various ganglia are 
connected with one another 
and with every part of the 
body. These ganglia stimu¬ 
late and control the activi¬ 
ties of every portion of the 
body. The chief ganglia are 
the brain and spinal cord. 

A nerve is a white cord, composed, like a telephone cable, 
of many insulated threads which connect one ganglion cell 
with another or with a muscle cell, a gland, or sense organ. 

Voluntary Control. — Nerve currents are continually 
surging through the nerve system giving rise to all our move¬ 
ments, thoughts, and feelings. Every impression we re¬ 
ceive from without sends a stream of nerve currents to the 
spinal cord and brain. When the current reaches the large 
part of the brain ( cer'ebrum ) we feel the impression. All 
actions which are intended (that is, voluntary actions ) are 
caused by nerve currents which start in the cerebrum. 

The nerve system works as follows: Something touches 
the hand. From a touch organ in the skin a nerve current 



Figure 26. — Cross Section of a 
Nerve (much magnified). 

The nerve is composed of several 
bundles of axons, each bundle 
wrapped by connective tissue fibers. 

What is the appearance of an 
axon? 








INVOLUNTARY CONTROL 


35 


GM 



is sent over a group of nerve threads to the cells in the spinal 
cord with which they connect. These cells oxidize and send 
the current over another set of 
threads to certain brain cells. The 
brain cells oxidize and the touch 
is felt. These brain cells send the 
current to other brain cells and 
the thought occurs to move the 
hand away. A nerve current 
caused by the oxidation of certain 
cells in the upper part of the 
brain runs down a set of threads 
in the spinal cord to the height 
of the shoulder. There it sets off 
a battery of cells in the spinal 
cord which, by oxidizing, send cur¬ 
rents through connecting nerve 
threads to the muscles that move 
the hand. The muscles contract 
and the hand moves. The time 
of this entire series of currents 
may be one eighth or one tenth of 
a second. 

Involuntary Control. — In con¬ 
trast to the voluntary movements 
are the involuntary activities,— 
the work of the digestive organs, 
the circulation of the blood, the 
secretions of the glands. These 
activities do not have their origin 
in the cerebrum but are controlled 
by a set of minor ganglia to which 
the term autonom'ic or self-governing nerve system has been 
applied. The autonomic ganglia constitute a chain lying 
on each side of the spinal column through the chest and 



Skin 

Figure 27.—Spinal Cord. 

This diagram shows paths of 
nerve currents coming from 
the skin to the cord and brain, 
and currents from the brain to 
the cord and thence to a muscle 
or to an autonomic ganglion, 
from which it goes to a gland 
or muscle. GM, gland or 
muscle; A, autonomic gan¬ 
glion ; M, muscle; SpG, spinal 
ganglion. 







36 


THE BODY AT WORK 


abdomen, together with three centrally situated groups — 
one in and near the heart, one behind the stomach, and one 
in the pelvis, the lower part of the abdomen. These ganglia 
are connected with the brain and spinal cord so that the 
nerve control of the whole body is unified. But although 
the brain unifies the control of these vital activities, no con¬ 
scious effort of the mind can control them. A little thought 
will make clear what a wise arrangement this is, since no 
one could voluntarily control with success the beating of the 
heart, the work of the digestive organs, and other functions. 

As an illustration of involuntary control take the mus¬ 
cular work of the intestine. When food is present in the 
intestine it starts off a nerve current to an autonomic nerve 
center. Stimulated by this current the center oxidizes, and 
sends out a current to muscles in the wall of the intestine, 
which are made to contract and force the food along. We 
not only have no control over this action but we are alto¬ 
gether unconscious of it. 

Control through Hormones. — There is another sort of 
automatic control of the cells of the body, within a limited 
field, which acts by means of substances carried in the blood 
instead of by nerve currents. These substances are se¬ 
creted by certain glands called ductless glands, because unlike 
the liver, pancreas, and salivary glands, they have no ducts to 
carry away their secretions. Consequently their secretions 
are absorbed in the lymph, carried into the blood and distrib¬ 
uted to all parts of the body. These secretions are called 
hor'mon-es. The work of the hormones seems to be to in¬ 
fluence the activities of the cells in certain parts or in all of 
the body. They are necessary not only to the perfect 
growth of the body but also to the wholesome development 
of the mind. Our good cheer, the degree of our courage, 
the persistence of our application to our work depend on 
the hormones. The following are the most prominent of 
the ductless glands: 


CONTROL THROUGH HORMONES 


37 


The thy'roid gland, situated in the neck (enlarged in 
goiter), produces a fluid which stimulates assimilation of 
food. If it is poorly developed the child does not grow 
normally. If it is enlarged its effect may be disastrous in 
another way, resulting in nervousness and general break¬ 
down. 

A portion of the pit'uitary gland, which is situated in a 
small depression in the skull just beneath the brain, 
secretes a fluid that also has the power of stimulating growth. 
Its absence results in a dwarfed body. Too much developed, 
it may cause the enormous growth of the eight-and nine- 
foot wonders, or it may cause the bones of the head or hands 
to grow to a grotesque size. 

The adre'nal glands, lying near the kidneys (see Figure 
24 , suprarenal glands), produce a substance which has 
a profound influence on the small blood vessels. In 
its absence the vessels become flabby and the blood does 
not circulate well. Present in too large quantities, it 
causes the vessels to contract so vigorously as to shut out 
the blood. An extract is made from the adrenal glands of 
the sheep and used by surgeons locally to drive the blood 
temporarily out of tissue where they are working, e.g., the 
lining of the nose. 

A good example of control through hormones is found dur¬ 
ing strong emotion. When one becomes very angry the adre¬ 
nal glands produce an unusual amount of their secretion. This 
is quickly carried into the general circulation and tones up the 
whole body. The lungs take in more oxygen; the liver con¬ 
verts glycogen to sugar and pours this energy food into the 
blood; our general vigor is increased; we are ready for 
a fight. In like manner when we are moved by fear the 
increased adrenal secretion gives us greater power of flight. 

Why is there need of a nerve system? Of what is a ganglion 
composed? What is a nerve? What is its function? Describe 
the course of the nerve currents which occur to make one feel a 


38 


THE BODY AT WORK 


touch on the hand. When you move your hand what nerve cur¬ 
rents cause the act ? Name some automatic activities. Where are 
the ganglia which control them? What are hormones? Name 
several ductless glands and describe the work of the hormones pro¬ 
duced by each. 

Section 8. Sensation 

In the preceding section you saw how one part of the body 
is brought into harmony with another part that all may 
work in unison for the good of all. It is necessary also that 
the body be related to the world by which it is surrounded. 
It must be able to get from its environment what it needs 
and to avoid the things which would harm it. It can act 
on its surroundings by means of its muscles. How shall it 
get information about externals, and receive impressions 
that it may know how to act? Our special senses are the 
avenues of communication. 

Special Senses. — The eye receives rays of light from the 
objects within our vision. The rays striking the nerve end¬ 
ings in the eye cause nerve currents to go to the brain — and 
we see. Vibrations of the air strike upon the ear and cause 
that organ to send nerve currents to the brain to give us 
hearing. When the skin is touched the tiny touch organs 
send nerve currents to the brain to make us feel. A particle 
of food on the tongue stimulates the taste organ to send 
nerve currents to the brain -— and we taste. A minute 
particle carried by the stream of air into the nose touches 
the end of the nerve of smell and a current goes over the 
nerve to the cerebrum to give us the sense of smell. The 
function of a sense organ is to translate the impressions from 
the outside into a nerve current. 

Besides the five special senses which have long been recog¬ 
nized, we now understand that the sense of heat and the 
sense of cold, residing in the skin, and the muscular sense, 
by which we distinguish between heavy and light weights 
when we lift them, are also special senses. Perhaps some 


THE SKIN 


39 


others should be added to the list. Our response to the 
world about us is quite imperfect. There are air vibrations 
too rapid and others too slow to arouse response of the ear. 
There are rays beyond the range of the eye. Our taste and 
smell are exceedingly limited. A touch may be unfelt. We 
have no organs to respond to magnetism and X-rays. Yet 
with our limited avenues of com¬ 
munication we are able to estab¬ 
lish a wonderful connection with 
our environment, sufficient for the 
needs of the body. 

Why need we have special senses ? 

What is the function of the sense or¬ 
gans? Give three illustrations. Name 
eight special senses. Name as many 
things as you can which we have 
come to know by inference instead of 
by direct sensation. 

Section 9. Protection 



Figure 28. — The Epidermis. 
The lower part of the figure 


epidermis and tell how the up¬ 
per cells differ from the lower. 


The Skin. — The skin protects 
the body against several kinds of 
injuries. Its main structure is a shows fibers of the dermis. Ex¬ 
network of fibers which give it the amine the several layers of 
qualities of elasticity, pliability, 
and toughness. The fat, which in 
some places is abundant in the skin, increases its efficiency 
as a pad to soften blows and to temper heat and cold. The 
surface of the skin is composed of dead, waxy cells which 
lap over one another like shingles on the roof. As the out¬ 
side wears off new cells growing underneath are crowded 
to the surface and die, keeping a continuous hard and 
compact layer at the outside. This layer of dead cells is 
nearly impervious to gases, water, and germs, thus enabling 
us to handle poisons without being harmed. It also keeps 
the body from drying out rapidly. The protection which 






40 


THE BODY AT WORK 


the skin affords is increased somewhat by hair which all of 
us have in some quantity nearly all over the skin. 

The Senses. — Through our special senses we are warned 
of the approach of dangers and are able to considerable ex¬ 
tent to avoid them by the quick involuntary movements 
of the body. The eye winks when an insect flies toward 
it. The hand or foot jerks away when unexpectedly 
touched. But our mind is the preeminent agent in direct¬ 
ing our lives away from dangers and in providing means 
for meeting harmful influences. You have already learned 
one way in which the body contends against disease germs 
that get into the body; the white blood cells in the blood 
kill the germs. Later we shall learn of other means of pro¬ 
tection. 

The avenues through which germs get into the body are 
somewhat guarded. The gastric juice kills many germs 
in the stomach, though too many get through and grow in 
the intestine. The nose passage, somewhat crooked and 
with an extensive moist surface, catches many germs before 
they can get to the lungs and gives us a chance to blow them 
out. In all these and some other ways the body protects 
itself, though quite imperfectly, against the dangers which 
assail it. 

Of what is the skin composed? Against what does it protect us 
by its strength and thickness? What sort of surface has the skin? 
Against what does the outer layer of the skin protect us? For 
what purpose do you suppose the ancestors of man had hair well 
developed over the body while we have little need of it ? Explain 
the value of the quick involuntary movements called reflex actions. 
Give several examples of man’s protecting himself better than do 
other animals because of the superiority of his mind. How does 
the body protect itself against disease germs already in the body? 
How is the digestive tract to some extent protected against germs? 
IIow does the nose passage protect the lungs ? 


CHAPTER III 

THE TREATMENT OF DISEASE 


The birth of science was the death of superstition. 

— Thomas Huxley. 


Section 1. From Superstition to Science 

Old Superstitions. — It would never occur to anyone 
nowadays to go to a barber for a surgical operation. Yet 
for many centuries, and even until two hundred years ago, 
barbers were also surgeons. The barber pole is a very old 
symbol. Its alternate, stripes represent the blood of the 
patient and the bandage of the surgeon. 

The chief operation of these old barber-surgeons was the 
“ letting of blood.” For hundreds of years in all civilized 
countries the blood was supposed to be the source of all 
disease. A sick body was supposed to be “ cleared up ” 
by the removal of “ impure blood,” just as a tank might 
be cleaned by the removal of murky water. Even healthy 
people went in spring and autumn to be bled by the barber- 
surgeon as a precaution against disease. 

We now know that the blood itself is actually attacked 
by comparatively few diseases. Far from being the source 
of most of our troubles, it is the veritable stream of life, and 
is vitally active in warding off disease or in the process of 
recovery from sickness. 

Yet, strangely enough, the old ignorant beliefs as to “ im¬ 
pure blood ” survive to-day in various forms. Many chil¬ 
dren are dosed by their well-meaning parents in spring and 

41 




42 


THE TREATMENT OF DISEASE 


autumn with nauseous mixtures that are supposed to 
“ thin ” or “ thicken ” the blood. Patent medicine fakers 
advertise innumerable “ blood teas,” “ blood tonics,” “ blood 
bitters,” and “ blood purifiers ” as a means of reme¬ 
dying all sorts of diseases or of resisting contagion. Thus 
the makers of these useless nostrums thrive on the ignorance 
of thousands of people. 

What is the meaning of the stripes on a barber pole? Why did 
people “let blood”? Discuss the use of “blood medicines.” 

Charms. — In olden times carved ivory images, stamped 
bits of metal, bits of parchments inscribed with magic words, 
and many other kinds of tokens were carried or worn as 
charms to ward off disease and misfortune. As late as 1820 
in the United States, a booklet containing the weirdest kind 
of recipes for remedies and cures was widely circulated. 
Its brief preface promised the ignorant that whoever carried 
the book with him was safe from all his enemies, visible and 
invisible, and was immune to disease, drowning, burning, 
or unjust sentence of any court. These beliefs seem child¬ 
ish to us now, but many a man who would scoff at such 
superstitions is carrying a buckeye in his pocket to prevent 
rheumatism, or secretly cherishes the notion that the left 
hind foot of a rabbit or a “ lucky ” pocket piece is possessed 
of some sort of hidden virtue. 

Give examples of the practice of wearing charms. 

Mystery. — Mystery has always played a prominent 
part in the superstitious treatment of disease. Galen, the 
greatest of Roman physicians, taught that a prescription 
lost most of its virtue unless it was written in Egyptian. 
Great physicians of the middle ages included in many of 
their prescriptions “ powdered horn of a unicorn.” Yet 
the unicorn, like the modern sea-serpent, had never been 
caught. In modern times the manufacturers of “ patent 
medicines ” have played on this popular faith in mysterious 


PSEUDO-SCIENCE 


43 


remedies. Many useless concoctions have been sold as the 
secret recipes of gypsies, the magic remedies of infallible 
Indian medicine-men or of Oriental priests, or as the inspired 
formulas of old women who have discovered the wonderful 
healing powers of rare herbs. Actually there is nothing 
mysterious about any of these nostrums; they are made 
of substances well known to any chemist and are often worse 
than useless. 

Give ancient and modern examples of the appeal to mystery 
in medical practice. 

Tradition. — There are many old traditions about food 
and medicines which are commonly believed, but have no 
ground in science. For example, it is said that you should 
not drink milk after eating sour fruit, lest it curdle in the 
stomach. The fact is that milk always curdles in the stom¬ 
ach — a desirable process. It is said that poisonous mush¬ 
rooms tarnish a silver spoon while edible ones do not. The 
test is altogether untrustworthy. The use of medicines by 
physicians was until about a generation ago chiefly tradi¬ 
tional, — and is still altogether too largely so. A drug was 
used because it was said by someone long ago to be helpful 
in the disease under treatment. 

Explain how tradition leads to irrational practices in regard to 
health. 

Pseudo-science. — There are several “ schools of medi¬ 
cine/ J cults of healing, nature cures, etc., which affect to 
be founded on “ science ” but whose practitioners are very 
like the fakers who have always preyed on the ills of man¬ 
kind. Some of these cults have a religious or semi-religious 
character. They all claim to heal when regular practi¬ 
tioners fail. They sometimes gain quite a following for a 
time, because they occasionally perform some striking cures. 
Their cures are of the kind that have throughout the ages 
been performed by miracle workers — cures of diseases 


44 


THE TREATMENT OF DISEASE 


which arise out of disordered imagination. Such cults die 
out after a few years, to be followed by others of like ilk, 
founded on some new discovery,” but whose attainments 
are practically the same. 

What cults of healing do you know? 

True Science. — In contrast to all these superstitions, 
charms, mysteries, traditions, and false science is the truly 
scientific practice of the healing art. It is modest in that it 
recognizes how far short it falls of its ideals. It is candid in 
publishing its own failures. It is truly scientific in that it un¬ 
relentingly seeks the truth, regardless of the destruction of 
cherished theories, — it puts all things to the test and holds 
fast only that which is good. Medicines are no longer given 
by the best physicians because someone years or centuries 
ago said they were good for certain diseases. Every remedy 
must be tested in hundreds of cases. If it does not stand 
up under the test and prove its value it is thrown into the 
discard — the fate of a good share of the drugs in use two 
generations ago. 

Explain how true science differs from pseudo-science in medi¬ 
cine. 

Modern Miracles. — By such scientific methods the prac¬ 
tice of medicine has made more progress within the last 75 
years than in all the centuries of history. Within 50 years 
surgery has been revolutionized. Thousands of lives are 
saved daily that would formerly have perished. Opera¬ 
tions that 50 years ago were rare and over 90 per cent fatal are 
now performed daily with very little loss of life. Torn and 
mutilated bodies are patched up and remolded in ways 
that would never have been thought possible a few years 
ago. Germ growths and their products that formerly would 
have resulted in death are now cut out and the patient made 
well and strong. Preventive or curative treatments have 
been devised which have well nigh robbed of their power a 


THE CORNERSTONE 


45 


number of diseases which 
used to bring consterna¬ 
tion and terror to the 
communities in which 
they appeared, — rabies 
(hydrophobia), yellow 
fever, malaria, diphthe¬ 
ria, tetanus, typhoid, an¬ 
thrax, smallpox. 

What are some of the 
wonderful achievements of 
modern scientific medicine ? 

The Cornerstone.— 

All these wonderful ad¬ 
vances in surgery and 
most of those, in preven¬ 
tive and curative medi¬ 



cine have been built pn 
the cornerstone laid by 
Louis Pasteur — the dis¬ 
covery that germs cause 
disease. The great Eng¬ 
lish surgeon Lister was 
quick to apply this dis¬ 
covery to his field. He 
saw that if germs could 
be excluded from wounds 
the injury would heal 
quickly and without pus, 
and thus he laid the 
foundation of aseptic 


(Underwood & Underwood Photo) 
Figure 29. — Louis Pasteur. 

This Frenchman (1822-1895) discovered 
the fact that germs cause diseases in do¬ 
mestic plants and animals and in human 
beings. He saved to France the grape 
and silk industries which were being de¬ 
stroyed by diseases of the vines and of the 
silk worms. By devising cures and pre¬ 
ventive treatments for chicken cholera, 
hog plague, anthrax, and rabies (hydropho¬ 
bia) he has preserved the lives of domestic 
animals to the value of hundreds of mil¬ 
lions of dollars and saved the lives of 
thousands of people. On the foundation 
he laid rests the science of modern medi- 


surgery. Methods of op- cine ‘ 

erating and of caring for wounds made such progress that 
in the late World War limbs that would formerly have 
been called shattered beyond hope of recovery, and lives 






46 THE TREATMENT OF DISEASE 


that would have been given up were saved by the thou¬ 
sands. 

What is the cornerstone 
of modern medicine? How 
has this been applied in sur¬ 
gery? 

TheRoyal Road.— 

The highway that has 
brought the art of pre¬ 
serving health and heal¬ 
ing the sick to the 
advanced stage it has 
reached has been the 
royal road which leads 
to every success, — de¬ 
voted, painstaking, sci¬ 
entific work. Earnest 
men have not only spent 
their lives in seeking the 
truths which would alle¬ 
viate the sufferings of 
their fellows, but they 
have offered their bodies 
for experiment and not 
a few have laid down 
their lives, martyrs to 
the cause of scientific 
medicine. Anyone who 
appreciates this sacrifice 
and recognizes the value 
of scientific work will 


Figure 30. — Sir Joseph Lister. 

This Englishman (1827-1912) has been 
called the father of modern surgery. He 
taught the need of cleanliness in surgery 
even before Pasteur proved the existence 
of putrefactive germs. He was quick to 
appreciate the value of Pasteur’s discov¬ 
eries, and, enlightened by them, devised 
methods of aseptic and antiseptic opera¬ 
tions which made possible the wonderful 
accomplishments of modern surgery. 


not be willing to govern 
his life according to the superstitions or traditions of 
the past or the pseudo-scientific cults of to-day but will 
demand the most scholarly guidance of modern medical 
science. 




SICKNESS AND REMEDY 47 

How have the results of modern scientific medicine been 
achieved ? 

Section 2. Health and Sickness 

Hygiene. — Keeping the body in good health is called 
hygiene. By good health we mean that the activities of 
the cells are going on normally, each organ doing the work 
it is fitted to do in the whole body economy. Since the 
human machine adjusts itself to its surroundings, manages 
itself and repairs itself, it will usually be in good working 
order unless it is too greatly abused. However, it has not 
perfect power of adjustment and repair. We must make 
the conditions under which it works as favorable as possible. 
This is the practice of hygiene. We can do it intelligently 
and successfully only when we understand the working of 
the body (physiology) as described briefly in the preceding 
chapter. 

What do we mean by health? by hygiene? Why do we need to 
study physiology? 

Sickness and Remedy. — Sickness is just the opposite of 
health, a condition in which some of the organs of the body 
are not doing their normal work. There are seven chief 
causes of sickness. 

1. Sometimes the organ is imperfectly formed or has 
been injured by accident. An operation or course of treat¬ 
ment will sometimes improve the working of such an organ. 

2. Sometimes the cells are inherently weak, unable to do 
their normal work or to resist influences which are always 
tending to destroy them. Inherent weakness is usually 
due to unfortunate heredity; that is, imperfection in the 
parents. In this case something can often be done by care 
in food, exercise, and rest, to increase the strength of the 
person of poor heredity. 

3. Cells not inherently weak are sometimes weakened 
by over-activity so that they can not do their work. They 
usually recover when rested. 


48 


THE TREATMENT OF DISEASE 


4. Lack of suitable food is also a common cause of illness. 
The remedy obviously is to supply good food. This re¬ 
quires sometimes a great deal of study to know just what 
is needed. 

5. Poisons used in industry (lead, phosphorus) sometimes 
destroy or derange cells. The injury is serious, often fatal. 
Since little can be done to remedy such injury, attention 
should in this case be given to prevention. 

6. Some people use harmful drugs to such an extent as 
to injure seriously the cells, especially of the brain. A glass 
of wine, a cigar, a few cups of coffee, a headache powder — 
all interfere with the natural working of the nerve cells and 
if used excessively may produce serious trouble. It is pos¬ 
sible to stop the use of harmful drugs and recover from 
their evil effects, but it is much easier to avoid them than to 
break the habit of using them. 

7. But the most common causes of sickness are the dis¬ 
ease-producing organisms, — bacteria and other minute 
plants and animals. 

What is sickness? Name seven causes of disease, and indicate 
which one produces most disease. In what various ways mav 
disease or weaknesses be remedied? What difficulties are there 
in curing a disease due to lack of suitable food ? 

Parasites. — There are many small plants and animals 
which live within our bodies or on the surface. They are 
called parasites and many of them may cause disease. Some, 
like lice, fleas, mosquitoes, biting flies and ticks, which at¬ 
tack the skin, and the intestinal worms, are of size large 
enough to be seen easily. Others are so small that to see 
them individually we must use a microscope of high power. 
These are called germs , mi'cro-or'ganisms, or mi'crobes. The 
most common of the microbes are the tiny one-celled plants 
called bacteria. Each bacterium consists chiefly of a minute 
bit of protoplasm enclosed in its cell-wall. 

Not all diseases are caused by microbes though many 


HOW BACTERIA ARE STUDIED 


49 


have been proved to be so caused. Probably all diseases 
which one “ catches ” are due to microbes. In general 
each of these diseases has its own special germ, whose growth 
in the body causes that disease and no other. One kind of 
microbe causes diphtheria, another tuberculosis, another 
malaria, another typhoid; 
sometimes, however, more 
than one kind of germ may 
be present to cause the 
diseases of pneumonia, 
tonsillitis, dysentery, 

“ cold,” etc. 

What is a parasite ? Name 
several which infest the skin. 

What terms are applied to 
microscopic parasites? Dis¬ 
cuss the causing of disease 
by germs. 

How Bacteria Are Stud¬ 
ied. — Different kinds of 
bacteria, unless greatly 
magnified, can not be dis- Figure 31. — Mold, Yeast, and Bacteria 
tinguished from one (much magnified), 

another. Under a high- The mold is the tree-like form whose 
power microscope some of spores are produced in heads which break 
them are easily distin- °P en and . let the spores escape, 
guished from others, as you see in Figure 31, but there are 
some kinds that can not be identified even with the microscope. 

These must be grown in the laboratory and studied for a 
day or two that their differences of behavior may be ob¬ 
served. Some will grow in almost any food substance. 
Others are so limited in their food that it is almost impossi¬ 
ble to cultivate them. Coagulated blood serum and gela¬ 
tine containing beef broth are common foods used. As 
the bacteria grow, some kinds cause the gelatine to liquefy, 





50 


THE TREATMENT OF DISEASE 


others leave the jelly firm. Some kinds grow only at the 
surface where they can get the air, others only deep in the 
jelly shut away from the air. The color and the form of the 
mass of bacteria may identify them, as may also their rates 
of growth. 

Why is it so difficult to study bacteria? How are they some¬ 
times grown in a laboratory? What are some of the differences 
by which bacteria are distinguished ? 

How Bacteria Live. — The bacteria simply absorb the 
food on which they lie or in which they are immersed. As 
they assimilate the food they grow to their full size, then 
divide into two cells. When food is plenteous and the 
temperature favorable, bacteria can divide every half hour. 
At this rate a single bacterium in one day would multiply 
to an inconceivable number. Of course such a rapid growth 
is not continued for a long time, since the most favorable 
conditions can not long be maintained. While bacteria are 
growing rapidly they are tender and easily killed by heat, 
cold, sunshine, or drying. Most of them perish quickly in 
one of these ways. 

Spores. But bacteria can go into a resting stage, in 
which they lose some water and become denser. In this 
condition they are called spores, and have great resistance 
to unfavorable conditions. Germ-killing poisons do not so 
easily affect them. Freezing or drying does not kill them, 
and some can endure a temperature of almost boiling water. 
When a spore happens to get into surroundings suitable to 
its growth, it becomes an active cell again and assimilates 
food and multiplies. 

Not all bacteria are known to form spores. Most disease- 
producing bacteria fortunately are of this number. Those 
which do not can be more easily killed when we can get at 
them in their active state. Moderate cold does not kill 
germs but it does stop their growth. Then, when they be¬ 
come warm again they resume their active growth. 


BENEFICIAL MICROBES 


51 



What do bacteria do to grow? Figure out how many might be 
produced from a single cell in the course of twenty-four hours. What 
is a spore? What advantage is it to bacteria to form spores some¬ 
times? What becomes of the spores? Why do we keep food in 
an ice box? 


Figure 32. — Effect of Soil Bacteria. 

The clover plant on the left is growing in a poor sandy soil. The one 
on the right is a similar plant growing in a similar soil to which bacteria 
that enrich the soil have been added. 

Beneficial Microbes. — We hear so much about disease 
germs that we sometimes get the idea that all bacteria are 













52 


THE TREATMENT OF DISEASE 


our enemies. The fact is that microorganisms are our 
friends, indispensable to us. Only a few of them are dis¬ 
ease-producing. Most decay is the work of microorganisms, 
plant and animal. If the leaves and sticks, dead plants and 
animals, did not decay there would be no room on the earth 
for the living. Soil is prepared for plants by the microbes 
in it. Cream is soured for butter, and cheese is ripened by 
certain bacteria. Yeast which makes bread rise is a minute 
one-celled plant. 

Name as many ways as you can in which microbes are benefi¬ 
cial. What is yeast and what does it do ? 

Where Disease Germs Grow. — Disease germs are con¬ 
siderably limited in their place of growth. Diphtheria 
germs grow on the tonsils and adjacent parts of the throat; 
malaria germs, in the blood ; tetanus (lockjaw) germs, in the 
wound into which they are introduced; typhoid germs grow 
at first in the intestine and are later spread by the blood. 
Tuberculosis bacteria may grow in any tissue though they 
are most common in the lungs. Smallpox germs seem to 
spread quickly through the body and to develop vigorously 
in the skin. The less active tissues, as bone, seem particu¬ 
larly susceptible to attack by leprosy germs. 

Name several disease germs which are very limited in their 
place of growth, and give the location of each. Name some dis¬ 
ease germs which spread through the body. 

How Disease Germs Harm Us. — In some diseases 
(tuberculosis, leprosy) the tissue in which the germs grow is 
destroyed, making sores and cavities. In others the tissue 
remains intact but a poison (called toxin) is produced by 
the germs, gets into the blood, and so may be carried any¬ 
where in the body. Tuberculosis bacteria destroy tissue 
and also produce a toxin. The nerve system especially is 
injured by the toxins. Tetanus produces a deadly toxin. 
Diphtheria produces most of its injury by means of its toxin. 


HOW THE BODY PROTECTS ITSELF FROM GERMS 53 

Pus is one of the harmful results of the growth of many 
bacteria. It consists of lymph, a large number of white 
blood cells, and germs. It is usually whitish or yellowish, 
sometimes greenish (depending on the kind of bacteria), 
and pink when stained with blood. Pimples, boils, car¬ 
buncles, and smallpox eruptions are accumulations of pus 
in the skin. Accidental wounds commonly contain pus. 
Internal cavities — nose, ears, appendix, lungs — are often 
breeding places for pus-forming germs. Pus may contain a 
toxin. 

Name disease germs which destroy parts of the body. Name 
germs which do injury by producing toxin. Of what is pus com¬ 
posed ? Where may it be formed ? 

How the Body Protects Itself from Germs. — The skin 
is a fairly germ-tight covering. When it is unbroken germs 
can hardly get through. A few sometimes get into the oil 
glands and hair roots, and certain kinds can grow on the 
surface, but their injuries are commonly superficial. Most 
disease germs get in through breaks in the skin or through 
the natural openings — nose and mouth. The white blood 
cells, the policemen of the body, are aided in their work by 
the fluid of the blood which also has the power, to consider¬ 
able extent, of killing germs. We have disease because 
these two germ-destroying factors are not perfectly efficient. 
The practice of medicine is much concerned in increasing 
the efficiency of these germ-killing agents. 

The microbes which do their injury by the toxins they 
produce may be made harmless by counteracting the effects 
of the toxins. When the toxin is present in the body it 
stimulates the cells to produce a protective antitox'in. The 
antitoxin renders the toxin harmless. The germs can then 
be killed by the white blood cells. 

An attack of smallpox makes it impossible, or at least 
very difficult, for an individual to contract the disease again. 
This is due to the fact that the body has acquired the habit, 


54 


THE TREATMENT OF DISEASE 


so to speak, of manufacturing substances which render the 
attacks of that specific disease germ harmless. The pro¬ 
tection this habit gives the body is called immunity. 



Figure 33. — Chaulmoogra Tree, Leaves and Fruit. 


This tree, a native of eastern India, our Department of Agriculture is 
trying to introduce into America to supply an oil valuable in the treatment 
of leprosy. 

What means has the body for keeping germs out? How do 
disease germs get into the body? How does the body fight against 
germs ? What does an antitoxin do ? By what and when is it 
produced ? What is meant by immunity ? 

How We Can Cure Certain Diseases. — Since certain 
germs breed disease, the first suggestion is to kill the germs. 




HOW WE CAN AVOID DISEASE 


55 


If this is done safely within or on the body the sickness is 
cured. There are some germ-killing medicines which can 
be taken in sufficient quantity to kill the microbes without 
seriously poisoning the body, but they must be used with 
great care, — quinine for malaria, preparations of the oil of 
chaulmoogra for leprosy, several drugs for intestinal worms, 
perhaps calomel for the germs that cause diarrhea. 

How We Can Avoid Disease. —Important as is the cure 
of disease, prevention is much more important. The last 
few years have seen immense strides in the successful treat¬ 
ment of the sick and even greater progress in keeping people 
from getting sick. Yet the science of preventive medicine 
is still in its infancy. We may hope great things from it 
in the near future. Meanwhile there are many things we 
can do to avoid disease. 

Germs on the surface of the body are seldom dangerous, 
but they should be washed off as thoroughly as possible. 
This is one of the great values of frequent baths and es¬ 
pecially of washing the hands before handling food. Cuts 
or tears of the skin and the surrounding surface should be 
touched or “ painted ” with iodine to kill germs that might 
get in through the break. Germs discharged from the body 
of the sick should be destroyed by putting a germ-killing 
substance called disinfectant into the closet. Cloths and 
garments used by the sick, bed clothes, etc., should be dis¬ 
infected before going to the laundry. The room itself should 
be disinfected by poisonous vapors, a process called fumiga¬ 
tion. Drinking water, if suspected of containing germs, 
should be disinfected by boiling or by a chemical which kills 
the germs without spoiling the water. Cooking food kills 
the germs. 

Besides killing the germs we can take pains to avoid 
them, — to keep food, drinking water, and ourselves as much 
as possible away from the sick or from the germs which 
come from them. We quarantine the sick and forbid those 


56 


THE TREATMENT OF DISEASE 



known to have disease germs to handle food for others. One 
of the most important things we can do is to make ourselves 


( Rundle-Svence Manufacturing Co., Milwaukee, Wis.) 

Figure 34.—A Sanitary Fountain. 

Germs of sore throat are often communicated by a common drinking 
cup. A fountain which is touched by the lips is unsanitary. This illustra¬ 
tion shows the most approved style of fountain, with a slanting stream. 
The lips touch only the water, and the water falling from the lips carries 
any germs it may get away, not back into the fountain. 

proof against the germs which may come to us. Though 
the germs of some diseases (influenza, pneumonia, small¬ 
pox) attack the vigorous as successfully as the weak, there 










HOW WE CAN AVOID DISEASE 


57 



are other diseases (tuberculosis, for example) which those 
who are well fed and strong seem to resist. It pays to keep 
ourselves in good condition by hygienic living. 

Some artificial pro¬ 
cesses protect us against 
certain diseases — vacci¬ 
nation against smallpox, 
anti-typhoid serum in¬ 
jections against typhoid 
fever, toxin-antitoxin in¬ 
jections (TA) against 
diphtheria. These means 
of acquiring immunity 
and their results will be 
described later. 

The problem of keep¬ 
ing healthy is partly an 
individual problem, con¬ 
cerned with things we 
do for ourselves to keep 
well, and partly a social 
problem, concerned with 
what organized society 
does for the health of us 
all. Under the latter 


Figure 35. — A Chaulmoogra Forest 
in Burma. 


head come such topics 
as water supply, sewers, 
food inspection, pure air, quarantine, etc. The word sani¬ 
tation is commonly applied to these things. 

Of the three methods of avoiding disease — killing the germs, 
keeping away from them, strengthening the body against them — 
which is most thoroughgoing ? Why should a community prac¬ 
tice all three methods at the same time? Name some medicines 
which are specific cures. Give a good reason for bathing fre¬ 
quently. Why should the hands be washed before handling food? 
Why should scratches and cuts be treated with iodine? What 




58 


THE TREATMENT OF DISEASE 


is meant by disinfection ? by fumigation ? Why should the clothes 
of the sick be disinfected before going to the laundry? Name two 
ways in which drinking water is disinfected. What is quaran¬ 
tine ? In what two kinds of ways can we fortify our bodies against 
disease? Can we protect ourselves against all diseases in these 
ways ? What is meant by sanitation ? 

Summary. — We have seen that in health every part of 
the body is doing its work normally. In sickness some 
parts fail to do their work. Among the causes of this failure 
the most common is disease germs. In this chapter we have 
given only a general discussion of this topic. The details 
will be taken up in subsequent chapters. 


CHAPTER IV 

FOOD 


They are as sicJc that surfeit with too much, 

As they that starve with nothing. 

— Merchant of Venice. 


Section 1. Principles of Selection 

First Principle. — There are several principles which 
should control us in the selection of food. First, the food 
should cqpiain the substances needed by the body. We saw in 
Chapter II that any of the three kinds of foods — carbohy¬ 
drates, fats, proteins — may be oxidized in the cells of the 
body to produce energy, but that carbohydrates and fats 
are best for this particular purpose. Protein foods are 
indispensable because, as has been shown, they are the only 
foods which contain all the elements necessary for the 
growth and repair of protoplasm. It is estimated that be¬ 
tween one eighth and one fifth of our food should be pro¬ 
tein ; the remainder, carbohydrates and fats. 

Mineral Salts. — The body also needs certain mineral 
substances. About one half of the bones is mineral — 
chiefly calcium (lime) compounds. Iron is found all 
through the body, particularly in the red blood corpuscles, 
the liver, and spleen. A few other minerals are needed for 
the blood and for other tissues. These minerals always 
occur in chemical compounds called mineral salts. They 
are available for our use in certain foods. Our supply of 
them comes chiefly from the vegetables we eat. Green 
vegetables especially contain iron salts. Milk and yolk of 
egg contain lime salts and other valuable mineral substances. 

59 




60 


FOOD 


A varied diet of meat, milk, eggs, and vegetables supplies 
us with all the mineral salts we need. 

Vitamines. — There are certain substances called vi'- 
tamines which are also indispensable. They occur in very 
small quantities in a variety of foods. We can not exactly 
define vitamines, but we know the effects of their presence 
or absence. If they are altogether excluded from our diet, 
we become sick and die. Restoring them to the bill of fare 
cures the sickness if it has not progressed too far. 

There are three kinds of vitamines: one kind soluble in 
fat, called Fat Soluble A; and two kinds soluble in water, 
called Water Soluble B and Water Soluble C. All three kinds 
are necessary to health and growth. Fat Soluble A vita¬ 
mines occur particularly in milk, butter, cheese, eggs, and 
leafy vegetables, such as spinach, and lettuce. Water 
Soluble B vitamines occur in milk, in almost all the commonly 
used vegetables, cooked or uncooked, and in the whole grains 
of wheat, rice, and other cereals. Water Soluble C vita¬ 
mines are contained in largest quantities in fresh fruits and 
uncooked vegetables. 

Cod liver oil is rich in A vitamines. Yeast, which has 
been so extravagantly advertised as a curative diet for many 
ills, is possibly the richest source of B vitamines. Orange 
juice and the juice of raw or cooked tomatoes furnish the C 
vitamines in abundance. Raw carrots, or very young car¬ 
rots cooked for a short time, contain all three kinds. Cole¬ 
slaw (commonly called cold-slaw), lettuce, and tomato salad, 
and almost all kinds of uncooked combination vegetable 
salads furnish the three kinds of vitamines. Meat also con¬ 
tains a small quantity of vitamines. 

How much vitamine food we need, we do not know. It 
seems that after a certain quantity is taken, increasing the 
amount does no good. Therefore we do not need vitamines 
in all our food. We must only be sure to get enough, and 
this we can do by varying our diet sufficiently. An infant 


VIT AMINES 


61 


gets its needed supply of vitamines, as well as of other food 
elements, from the mother’s milk. In the case of bottle-fed 
infants, it is frequently necessary to supplement the milk 
diet with orange juice or tomato juice, since the modified 
and sterilized milk prepared for the baby contains only a 
very minute amount of any other vitamine than the A 
variety. 

Second Principle. — The food should he free from harmful 
substances and injurious organisms. Among the harmful 
substances found in food are worm parasites, disease germs, 
the poisonous products of germ life (pto'maines) , and sub¬ 
stances which have narcotic or stimulating and other drug 
effects. 

Third Principle. — The food should he suited to our diges¬ 
tive organs. Certain people can digest what others can not. 
Some persons must be careful to choose the food that digests 
most easily. In studies of digestion, “ easy to digest ” 
usually means “ stays in the stomach but a short time ” — 
perhaps an hour or two. “ Hard to digest ” means three or 
four hours in the stomach. The longer the food stays in 
the stomach the more chance it has to ferment and cause 
the suffering of indigestion. If we have no trouble with 
our stomach digestion (most of us who live hygienically 
do not) it makes little difference whether the food stays one 
hour or three hours in the stomach. Almost all healthy peo¬ 
ple can digest comfortably most common foods — which is a 
fortunate state of affairs. It is very inconvenient as well as 
unnecessary to be finical in our eating. We should study 
our eating until we know what we can eat and what we can 
not; remembering that we can probably eat what others do, 
and not letting our imagination blacklist a good food un¬ 
necessarily. 

Fourth Principle. — We have to consider, sometimes to our 
regret, the cost of the food. Some of the foods best from the 
standpoint of hygiene are sometimes so high in price as to 


62 


FOOD 


tempt us to use a substitute which is cheaper but not so 
good for us. Butter is a much better food than oleomarga¬ 
rine because it is richer in vitamines. If we use the sub¬ 
stitute which has so little vitamines we should take pains 
to get the necessary fat soluble vitamines from some 


Milk, Cheese . . . i -- - ' l 

Bread, Cereals, Macaroni, 

Rice ..... I . ' 'I 

Vegetables .... i ..1 

Meat, Eggs, Nuts . . i l 

Figure 36 . — Cost of Growth-food. 

The lengths of the lines indicate the relative quantities of growth-food 
which can be bought for ten cents. 

other source. Some rather expensive foods, on the other 
hand, are no better hygienically than cheaper ones. Cheap 
cuts of meat are just as wholesome as expensive cuts. 
Fruits and vegetables out of season are not economical. 
By studying the problem carefully we shall be able to buy 
our food economically and yet not deprive ourselves of the 
things which are important in our diet. 

State four principles which should control us in the use of food. 
Why is protein food indispensable? In about what proportions 
should proteins and carbohydrates or fats be used? What use 
does the body make of carbohydrates and fats? 

What are vitamines ? How is their absence from the diet mani¬ 
fested? What results from restoring them to the diet? Why 
are babies given orange juice? Is it more valuable for those nursed 
at the breast or for those fed boiled milk? 

What harmful things sometimes found in food should we take 
pains to avoid? 

What is meant by “easy to digest”? by “hard to digest”? 
What people should choose foods easy to digest ? Why is it a mat¬ 
ter of little concern to most of us? Why should most of us ex¬ 
clude a few and only a few good foods from our diet ? 










HOW MUCH TO EAT 


63 


Why is it worth while for us to pay more for butter than for 
oleomargarine? How can we economize without detriment to 
our health in the use of meat? What is the most economical 
way to regulate our fruit and vegetable supply? 

Section 2. Quantity 

How Much to Eat. — We can not tell how much to eat 
by how hungry we feel. Hunger is so much a matter of 
habit that if we are accustomed to overeat we are still hun¬ 
gry when we have had enough; and if we are accustomed 
to eat less than we need we are satisfied when we have eaten 
less than we ought to take. A good rule is to eat as much as 
you need, and only as much as you need to keep up to your 
standard weight. No fixed standard can be set for every¬ 
body. Every adult should try himself out and learn at what 
weight he is in best health and can do his work most 
efficiently. Then he should eat so as to keep at about that 
weight, expecting to gain a few pounds between twenty- 
five and fifty years of age and to lose some in old age. 

Tables have been made out showing the normal weights of 
boys and girls for each year of age and height in inches. 
Children that are much below normal (six or eight pounds 
is not serious for high school pupils; fifteen or twenty 
pounds is a matter of concern) should improve their diet 
and try to rise to the standard. Most high school boys and 
girls should gain one half pound to one pound per month 
if they are normal, and more than that if they are making 
up a deficiency. 

Over weight means too much fat. Anti-fat medicines 
are worse than useless. Hard work will use up the fat, 
oxidize it. Eating little sugar and starch, the fat-produc¬ 
ing foods, will prevent its recurrence. The best way to 
reduce is to eat less. Children over weight should be care¬ 
ful not to decrease their diet so as to interfere with their 
growth. If they are too fat they should stop eating candy 
and ice cream but not proteins. 


64 


FOOD 


Calories. — One’s occupation governs largely the quan¬ 
tity of food needed. If a man works hard physically he 
must have much food to supply the energy. He can put 
out only as much energy as he takes in. Food energy is 
measured in Cal'ories. 1 A Calorie is the quantity of heat 
required to raise one kilogram of water one degree in tem¬ 
perature. A pound of food is said to contain as much energy 
as it would yield Calories when completely oxidized. A 
pound of fat contains about 4000 Calories, a pound of flour 
less than half as much. A hard worker will transform 4000 
to 5000 Calories of food energy into work in a day; a clerk 
or a scholar 3000 or less. Small bodies use less than large 
ones. High school pupils commonly use between 2000 and 
3000 Calories of food a day. A good lunch for you would 
contain about 500 Calories, — an egg sandwich 275 Cals., 
a glass of milk 150 Cals., and an apple 50 Cals. At dinner 
an average piece of meat will contain 200 to 400 Cals, and 
a potato 100 or 150 Cals. 

Why is hunger an unreliable guide in eating ? How much should 
one eat ? What is your normal weight ? Find your actual weight 
on a scale. If you are below normal what should you do ? If an 
adult is too fat what should he do ? Why should children be care¬ 
ful in following the same procedure? What should children that 
are too fat do without hesitation ? 

Why should a day laborer eat more than a bookkeeper? What 
is a Calorie? How many Calories a day does a hard-working man 
need? How many Calories does one of sedentary occupation 
need? How many Calories do you need? 

1 1 Calorie = 1000 calories. 


Boys HEIGHT AND WEIGHT TABLE Girls 


HEIGHT AND WEIGHT TABLE 65 


»i 
>* 

Or-iiOOi(MiOOOOTtHl>O^Oi 

S^^ZhShSh^h^h^h^h^h^^h 

k_ ad 
£ « 
►< 

GO^OJTfQOi-H^t^OlCOCOOiCOOO 

^SS^^Sh^h^h^hJhJh^h^h^ 

16 

Yrs. 

hO^GOCONOCOCOXNiOOOC^N 

as' 

OOiOOOhiOCSM-^NOCOOO^ 

GOOlOJOOrHpHHC^INlMCOCOirO^'^ 

HHHHHHHHHHHHH 

14 

Yrs. 

J>i-HU305^CSTHCfcCOOO©<NCOOOi-iTt<aO 
NOOGOOOOCJOOHr-I (N <M (M <N CO CO CO 

rH H H rH t-H rH rH rH rH t-H t-H 

13 

Yrs. 

OCOCOO^OOCOIXNIXMt^OirHTHcOOl 

NNN00 00 00 05C500HrHr-i(NC^(N(N 

HHHHHHHHH 

12 

Yrs. 

’—*THr^Oi(N»005C01>'—H0HCDH10N05 
COycDONNNOQCOOiOJOO^Hr-irt 

18 

Yrs. 

. OCOOlMOOiflffiMt^NNMNMN 
'-Hi—lrH01(MC0C0C0'^t | TtlL0L0OC0i>-t^- 

HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH 

00 

* 

r-0100C0l>Oi00iTti00(MCDT-HO'-HX)r-ic0 
©OOHr-i(M(M(MCOCO'^HTjHiOiOCOCC>l>I>* 

HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH 

2 3 

’- , OT-iCO T HLOOiTt | GOCCI>i-HiOOiOOiOOiO 

050lOO^Hi—irHC<l(MCOCOTt<'^t , iOtOCOCOt>l>- 

HHHHHHHHHHHHHHHHH 

2 8 

CX)OiC50iOO'-HrHC^l(NCOCO^t l '^^iOiOCDcOI> 

HhHHHHHHHHHHHHHH 

14 

Yrs. 

CO(MiOOOC^t>*(MCOi—iI^.(MCDrHLOOi(MI>(MI>(M 
I>0000000i0500i—11—i(M(MCOCOCOTti'^iOLCO 

HHHHHHHHHHHHHH 

13 

Yrs. 

i— i-stH>rHTti|>0' , ^05Tti05iOOiOO^t | GO 
l^I>t^OOOOOOOiOiOiOO’-iOq(MCOCOCO 

H rH rH t-H rH rH r-H i-H 

sa 

(MtOOOOfOCDOfOCDC5COr-(Mi>CO 

OCOCDNNNOOOOOOOOCiOOOH 

hhh 

Inches 

high 

O'-H(MC0r^i0C0t^000lOHH(Mc0rtli0C0I>0005OT-H(MC0 -, ^U0C0 

iOiOiOO»0»OiOiOlO l Q^P l ^> l ®COOCOCCM©^^t>-t>.l>Ot>.|>0 


DULD BE A GAIN EACH MONTH BOYS GlRLS 

Age, girls 11 — boys 12 to 14 12 oz. 12 oz. 

girls and boys 14 to 16 16 oz. 8 oz. 

girls and boys 16 to 18 8 oz. 4 oz. 















































66 


FOOD 


Section 3. Articles of Diet 

In the preceding sections we have discussed the princi¬ 
ples by which we choose our food and determine its quan¬ 
tity. We shall now take up various foods in detail. 

Vegetarians. — The vegetarian, unless he uses milk prod¬ 
ucts and eggs, contends that we should get our protein 
altogether from vegetable food and should use no meat or 
fish. Millions of people in the world do get adequate food 
without the use of meat. But with our customary foods, 
planned as they are for a meat diet, the vegetarian can not 
get along well by simply not eating the meat and taking 
the remainder of the menu. He should have protein foods 
to take the place of meat. These he commonly secures by 
eating beans, peas, or lentils. But these vegetable proteins 
are harder to digest than is lean meat. Though beans cost 
less than beef, a well balanced vegetable diet is about as 
expensive as a diet containing meat. 

Milk and Eggs. — Milk and eggs are all-round foods, 
supplying energy as well as materials for growth. To the 
vegetarian who has no objection to using them, they furnish 
a good substitute for meat. When properly prepared they 
are easily digested. Milk, even at the present high prices, 
is more economical than meat, and most of us might profit¬ 
ably use more of it and less meat. Eggs cost nearly the same 
as meat, often much more. Though milk forms the sole 
nourishment of young mammals, and eggs contain the sole 
food of unhatched birds, these foods should be supple¬ 
mented by other common foods in the diet of adults and 
of children over six or eight months of age. 

Cereals. — In the temperate zone cereals, usually made 
into bread, form mankind’s great staple food. They are 
mainly carbohydrates or energy foods, though with the ex¬ 
ception of rice, they contain a notable quantity of protein. 
They must be supplemented by foods richer in nitrogen 
such as meat, milk, cheese, or beans. L The great points in 


VEGETABLES 


67 


their favor are economy and digestibility. Whole wheat 
bread, as has been shown, contains more of the mineral 
salts used in the body and stimulates bowel movements 
more than does white bread, and is therefore preferable for 
most of us. Brown rice (unpolished) contains a vitamine 
necessary to those in India who make it their staple food. 
If they use the polished rice of commerce they become sick 



Figure 37. — Interior of Milk Station. 


After being Pasteurized and cooled the milk is bottled and capped by 
machines and stored in the refrigerating room until it is shipped. 

and die. Though some of us like the brown rice, the polished 
grain is a good food for us since our varied diet gives us 
plenty of vitamines from other sources. Among the cereals 
other than rice there seems to be little to choose, so far as 
nourishment goes, wheat having a slight preference. 

Vegetables. — Vegetables, especially green vegetables, 
notably cabbage, spinach, chard, lettuce, onions, tomatoes, 
cucumbers, carrots, turnips, are valuable sources of vita- 
mines and of mineral salts. Practically all vegetables con- 






68 


FOOD 


tain protein, but their chief food constituents are sugar 
and starch. Nearly all are beneficial in providing cel'lulose 
(their cell walls) which does not digest but makes bulk 
in the intestine and so facilitates bowel movement. Pota¬ 
toes have long been the favorite vegetable in Europe and 
America because of their economy, their vitamines, and 
their multiform preparations. 

Fruit. — Fruits, fresh or dried, raw or cooked, are 
recommended for daily use. The acid which most of them 
contain is a stimulus to the digestive organs. They con¬ 
tain some cellulose, a little protein and commonly sugar. 
Several fruits, as oranges and grapefruit, contain valuable 
vitamines. Bananas contain some starch (much when 
green) and if eaten raw are sweeter and more easily digested 
when dead ripe. Some of the dried fruits have a high energy 
value: raisins contain much protein in addition to the 
sugar. 

What is a vegetarian? Why need he give more thought to his 
diet than meat eaters give? How does a vegetable diet compare 
in cost with a meat-containing diet ? How compare in vitamines ? 
What i&the vegetarian’s best substitute for meat? 

What form mankind’s staple energy food? What are the 
points in their favor? What cereal is most used by the most pro¬ 
gressive peoples? Why is whole wheat better than white bread 
for many people? Why should the natives of India use brown 
rice instead of polished? Why is it of less importance which we 
use? 

For what are vegetables particularly valuable? Why is con¬ 
siderable cellulose in food desirable? Why are children urged to 
eat spinach or chard? Why are potatoes used so much in temper¬ 
ate climates? 

For what are fruits particularly valuable? When fresh fruits 
are expensive what may be substituted with about as good results? 
Why should people with poor digestion eat bananas only when the 
fruit is thoroughly ripe? 


FOOD VALUES 


69 


TABLE OF FOOD VALUES 
(approximate) 


Foods 

Protein 

Fat 

Carbohydrates 

Calories 

As Purchased 

Per Cent 

Per Cent 

Per Cent 

Per Pound 

Bacon. 

. 10 

60 

0 

2400 

Beef, fat. 

. . 15 

20 

0 

1100 

lean. 

.. 19 

8 

0 

700 

Fowl. 

. 14 

12 

0 

750 

Ham, smoked.. . 

.. 17 

18 

0 

1000 

Liver. 

.. 20 

3 

2.5 

540 

Mutton. 

. . 14 

23 

0 

1200 

Pork chops. 

.. 13 

24 

0 

1200 

Salt pork. 

.. 2 

86 

0 

3500 

Turkey. 

. 16 

18 

0 

1000 

Veal. 

.. 16 

6 

0 

500 

Fish, entire. 

.. 11 

4 

0 

360 

steak . 

. 15 

4 

0 

460 

Oysters. 

.9 

2 

4 

330 

Butter. 

. 1 

85 

0 

3500 

Buttermilk . . .. , 

.. 3 

1.5 

5 

160 

Cheese, cream .. . 

. 26 

34 

2 

1900 

Cottage cheese . . . 

. 21 

1 

4 

500 

Eggs. 

. 12 

9 

0 

600 

Lard. 

. 0 

100 

0 

4000 

Milk, whole. 

. 3.3 

4 

5 

300 

Baked beans. 

. 7 

2 

20 

600 

Beans, dry. 

. 2 

2 

60 

1600 

Boston brown bread 6 

6 

54 

1300 

Corn meal. 

. 9 

2 

75 

1600 

Cracked wheat ... 

. 11 

2 

75 

1600 

Oatmeal. 

. 16 

7 

67 

1800 

Rice. 

. 8 

0 

79 

1600 

Rye flour. 

. 7 

1 

78 

1600 

Wheat flour. 

. 11 

1 

75 

1600 

White bread. 

. 9 

1 

53 

1100 

Whole wheat flour 

14 

2 

72 

1600 



























70 


FOOD 


TABLE OF FOOD VALUES 
(approximate) 


Foods 

Protein 

Fat 

Carbohydrates 

Calories 

As Purchased 

Per Cent 

Per Cent 

Per Cent 

Per Pound 

Asparagus . 

. . 2 

.2 

3.3 

100 

Beets. 

. 1 

0 

8 

160 

Cabbage . 

. . 1.5 

0 

5 

120 

Carrots. 

. . 1 

0 

7 

160 

Cauliflower. 

.. 2 

.5 

5 

140 

Green corn. 

. . 1 

.5 

8 

180 

Green peas. 

.. 3.5 

.2 

10 

250 

Lettuce. 

. . 1 

0 

2.5 

70 

Onions. 

.. .5 

0 

9 

200 

Potatoes. 

.. 2 

0 

15 

300 

String beans . . . . 

. . 2 

.3 

7 

180 

Sweet potatoes . . 

. 1.5 

.5 

22 

450 

Tomatoes. 

. 1 

0 

4 

100 

Apples. 

. .. .3 

.3 

11 

200 

Bananas. 

. 1 

.5 

14 

300 

Grapes. 

. .. 1 

1 

14 

300 

Oranges . 

. . . 1 

0 

8 

170 

Pears. 

. . . .5 

.5 

13 

260 

Watermelon . . . 

. . . .2 

0 

3 

60 

Almonds . 

.11 

30 

10 

1600 

Black walnuts . . 

...7 

15 

3 

780 

Brazil nuts. 

. . . 8 

34 

3 

1600 

Chestnuts ..... 

... 5 

4.5 

35 

900 

English walnuts 

. .. 5 

17 

4 

860 

Chocolate. 

...13 

48 

30 

2800 

Cocoa . 

.. 21 

29 

38 

2200 

Prunes. 

. .. 2 

0 

62 

1160 

Raisins. 

...2 

3 

68 

1400 

Sugar . 

. . . 0 

0 

100 

1800 


The sum of the per cents of proteins, fats, and carbohy¬ 
drates subtracted from 100 gives the per cent of water, ash 
(mineral), and refuse. The mineral matter is always small, 
usually a fraction of one, though sometimes two or three 




























FOOD VALUES 


71 


per cent. But it is a valuable part of the food. To find 
what part of the net food in any article is protein or fat or 
carbohydrate we must first eliminate the water and refuse. 
Then we must add together the three items and divide each 
by the sum. Thus in the case of milk the sum of the three 
items is 12.3. Dividing 3.3, 4, and 5 each by 12.3 gives 
nearly 27 per cent protein, 32 per cent fat, and 41 per cent 
carbohydrate. 

1. What per cent of the net food (eliminating water and refuse) 
of lean beef is protein? is fat? 

2. What per cent of the food of pork chops is protein? is fat? 

3. Which of these two foods supplies more material for growth? 
Which supplies more energy for work? 

4. About what per cent of the net food of cereals is protein? 

5. About what per cent of the net food of potatoes is protein? 

6. About what per cent of the net food of grapes is protein? 

7. About what per cent of the net food of English walnuts is 
protein ? 

8. From foods of which group (meats, cereals, vegetables, fruit, 
or nuts) do we get most of our protein ? 

9. Is the protein of the net food of fresh vegetables higher or 
lower than of cereals? 

10. To get much protein from fresh vegetables should we need 
to eat a large or a small quantity ? 

11. From what dry food would a vegetarian get a large per 
cent of protein? 

To get the relative cost of energy in the various foods find the 
number of Calories which can be bought for one cent, by dividing 
the number of Calories in a pound by the cost of the pound. 

12. At 25 cents a pound how many Calories do you get for a 
cent in buying lean beef? 

13. At 4 cents a pound how many Calories do you get for a cent 
in buying wheat flour ? 

Compute as far as you can the number of Calories you get for 
a cent in each item of the table. 

14. In what foods do you get most energy for a cent? 

15. To what group do the most economical foods belong ? 


72 


FOOD 


16. What expensive foods would you avoid when you have lit¬ 
tle money to spend ? 


17. Foods of which of the three classes have the highest energy 
value? Give several instances from the table. 



18. Make out a bill of 
fare for dinner in which 
about one eighth of the food 
shall be protein and the to¬ 
tal Calories about 1500 for 
each person. Compute the 
cost. 


Section 4. Care of Foods 


We study the care of 
food chiefly that we may 
know how to keep it from 
decaying and from be¬ 
coming contaminated by 
disease germs. The com¬ 
mon methods of pre¬ 
serving food are refrig¬ 
eration, cleanliness, can¬ 
ning, and drying. 

Refrigeration. — The 
cold temperature of a 
refrigerator does not kill 
the germs which have got 
into the food, but it 


Figure 38. — A Food Preserver. 

This refrigerator is cooled by an elec¬ 
trically driven automatic freezing ma¬ 
chine instead of by ice. Although the orig¬ 
inal cost is considerable, the operation 
is much cheaper than the cost of ice and 
a lower temperature is maintained. 

does prevent their growth. If food is kept continuously 
at a temperature below freezing it can be preserved many 
months without deterioration. Some foods (fruit, potatoes, 
vegetables) will not stand freezing and must be kept at a 
little higher temperature. In the packing houses beef is 
usually kept at a temperature (about 35° Fahrenheit) which 
prevents decay although it allows mold to grow on the sur¬ 
face. At this temperature the meat becomes more tender, 
























PACKING HOUSE WORKERS 


73 


If meat is held in storage several months it is kept at a tem¬ 
perature of 8° below zero. Sheep carcasses and game are 
transported half around the world frozen stiff. If milk is 
drawn with care to avoid germs and immediately cooled it 
may be kept a week without souring. 



Figure 39. — Packing House Workers. 


Girls who handle meat in the canning and carton packing rooms must 
have clean hands and carefully manicured nails. The forelady inspects 
them at intervals during the day. 

In the ice box, which should be a part of the equipment 
of every kitchen, food may be preserved for days when it 
would otherwise spoil in a few hours of summer heat. The 
efficiency of the refrigerator depends on its temperature. 
The colder it is, the better and longer it preserves the food. 
If the ice is allowed to melt down to a small piece the tem¬ 
perature goes up and the germs multiply. A refrigerator 







74 


FOOD 


cooled by ice can not be kept at a temperature low enough 
to prevent the growth of mold, yeast, and certain bacteria. 
These organisms, spoiling the food and giving rise to un¬ 
pleasant odors, make it necessary to scrub out the refrigera¬ 
tor occasionally — particular housekeepers will do so once a 



Figure 40. — Milk Receiving Station at Palatine, III. 

The cans in the wagons are covered to keep them from getting hot and 
dusty on the road to the station. The cans are washed and scalded before 
they are returned to the farmers. 

week. Refrigerators cooled by ammonia pipes can be made 
so cold that no germs can grow in them. 

Cleanliness. — This applies to both utensils and hands. 
Our laws relative to handling food are becoming more strict. 
Packing houses and canneries must provide conveniences 
for their employees to scrub their hands. Utensils are 
thoroughly washed and steamed to kill germs. Flies must 
be kept out. Goods must not be exposed on street stands 



CLEANLINESS 


75 



to miscellaneous handling, to dust, and insects. In some 
states, meat carcasses in transportation must be encased in 
cloth to keep them from contamination. 

The care of milk has made most noteworthy progress 
within the last few years. In the best dairies the milkers 


Figure 41. — A Sanitary Counter. 

What device has this market to prevent untidy people’s handling food 
others are to buy ? 

not only wash their hands but also put on clean jackets and 
overalls when they go to milk. The cows are brushed and 
their udders sponged clean. The milk pail has a cover with 
only a small opening protected with gauze, through which 
the milk but not the dirt can go into the pail. The milk 
is carried at once from the stable to the dairy and cooled — 
or Pasteurized 1 (pas-ter'izd) and then cooled — and kept 
1 See next page. 






76 


FOOD 


cool until it is used. No one is allowed to work about the 
milk if there is infectious disease in his family. Bottling 
the milk in the country as soon as it is Pasteurized or cooled 
is a great help in keeping it clean. 

Certified milk is that produced with unusual care; it bears 
the certification of an inspector. The cows and dairy work¬ 
ers are inspected to see that they are free from disease. The 
food of the cows, the stables, the dairies, and bottling works 
must all be kept in first-class condition. The extra work, 
supervision, and inspection make a higher cost in the pro¬ 
duction of certified milk. 

People having any infectious disease should not handle 
the food for others. Various diseases are often communi¬ 
cated by such handling. Typhoid fever is commonly trans¬ 
mitted by the untidy hands of a cook who harbors the germs. 

Canning. — Foods are preserved by several processes 
whose purpose is to kill the germs in the food and prevent 
others from getting in. Fruits, vegetables, and meats are 
heated till they are thoroughly sterile and then put in tight 
cans to prevent other germs getting access to them. The 
housewife sometimes complains of bad luck in putting up 
fruit. It is a matter of science, not luck. If the fruit is 
put in sterile jars and while boiling hot closed air-tight with 
sterilized covers it can not spoil. 

Factories seal the food in the cans and heat it to a tem¬ 
perature above boiling. This is accomplished by placing 
the cans in an air-tight boiler and turning on the steam, 
thus heating them under pressure. This extra heat insures 
the destruction of germs and, if there is no leak in the can, 
will preserve the food for years. Pressure heaters are manu¬ 
factured for domestic use also. There is one disadvantage 
in this higher temperature; it may be destructive of certain 
vitamines. 

Pasteurization of milk is a modification of this process. 
The milk is heated to between 140 and 160 degrees F., then 


CURING , DRYING, PRESERVING 


77 


bottled. This temperature will kill common disease germs 
but not the spores of the germs which cause the milk to sour. 
Heating to a temperature high enough to kill the spores 
would destroy the vitamines and perhaps otherwise detract 
from the value of the milk. Without a thermometer milk 
can be Pasteurized fairly well in the home by putting a bot¬ 
tle of milk in a tall kettle of water, a little dish under the 
bottle to keep it off the bottom, and water 
within an inch of the top of the bottle. Bring 
the kettle of water to a boil, and then take 
it off the fire. The milk will be heated suffi¬ 
ciently to kill disease germs. Cool the bottle 
of milk rapidly and keep it on ice. 

“ Curing,” Drying, Preserving. — Salt and 
sugar, though wholesome when used dilute or 
in small quantities, are destructive agents 
when applied in a concentrated form. They 
absorb the water from protoplasm and de¬ 
stroy the cells. Therefore they can be used 
to kill the germs in food and so prevent its 
spoiling, and they do not make the food unwholesome. In the 
smoke of wood fire there is an antiseptic substance ( creosote ) 
which kills the germs on the surface of food that is hung 
in the smokehouse. Meats and fish are salted and smoked 
to kill germs present and to keep others from growing. 

The process of drying makes the surface of meat so hard 
and dry that germs can not grow on it. Many fruits and 
vegetables also are preserved by drying. People, civilized 
and savage, nearly everywhere use this method of preserv¬ 
ing foods. Lately improvements in the process have made 
the product more sanitary and attractive. In the modern 
process vegetables are shredded, kept under cover and dried 
by artificial heat, that the process may be rapid and cleanly. 
The product is packed in tight cans. It not only will keep 
but it is also light for transportation. These desiccated 



Figure 42. — 
Home Pasteur¬ 
izing. 








78 


FOOD 


vegetables are wholesome and tasty as well as convenient. 
It is thought, however, that vitamines are destroyed by the 
drying process. 

Brines are used to preserve some meats and vegetables. 



Figure 43. — Breakfast Bacon. 


These workers are packing “issue bacon” for the army. During the 
war the bacon section of the packing department of Armour and Company 
was kept busy 24 hours a day, and packed millions of 12-pound tins of 
bacon, cured and cut according to government specifications. 

In jams and jellies so much sugar is used that bacteria can 
not grow below the surface, but mold grows freely if the 
surface is exposed. If a thin layer of the jelly is removed 
with the mold, the remainder of the jelly is unaffected. Hot 
paraffin poured over the surface to seal the jelly as soon as 
it is cold prevents the growth of mold. 

What is the aim of caring for food? How does refrigeration 
preserve food? Why are live cattle and sheep not extensively 




REASONS FOR COOKING 


79 


transported to Europe for food as in former years? Explain how 
an ice box in the kitchen is a means of economy. What care should 
be taken of the refrigerator ? 

Why is it so important to keep food clean? What provisions 
are made by law for food cleanliness? Why should such special 
care be taken to keep milk clean? What is certified milk? Why 
should it cost more than other milk ? Why are people who have an 
infectious disease forbidden by law in some states to work in res¬ 
taurants or packing houses? What disease is often communi¬ 
cated by an untidy cook? 

How does canning prevent food’s spoiling? Why is factory 
canned food more likely to keep than home canned? What is 
Pasteurization of milk? Why do some city ordinances require 
Pasteurization ? Describe a process of home Pasteurization. 

How does salting preserve meat and pickles? How does smok¬ 
ing and drying preserve foods? Why is it not necessary to close 
jams and jellies in air-tight jars while boiling hot? Why is melted 
paraffin poured over the cold jelly? What microorganism some¬ 
times grows on the surface of pickle vats and jelly? 

Section 5. Cooking 

Reasons for Cooking. — There are several purposes in 
cooking food. First, tough meat and vegetables and the 
starch in many foods are softened and made more digestible 
by cooking. If left uncooked much of the food would go 
through the digestive tract undigested. To cook meat and 
vegetables by boiling we need only sufficient water to cover 
them. But dry starchy foods, like cereals and beans, soak 
up two to four times their bulk of water, and can not soften 
sufficiently without it. 

Second, germs are killed in cooking. Sometimes a pig 
infested with trichi'na, a small worm, is butchered and mar¬ 
keted. If the meat is not well cooked the eater may con¬ 
tract the disease and die. Notwithstanding the govern¬ 
ment’s inspection, we can not trust raw pork. It must be 
thoroughly cooked. More often beef and pork contain 
tape worms, which are killed by cooking. The disease- 


80 


FOOD 



producing bacteria are still more common in meats but they 
are easily killed at a temperature less than boiling. 

Third, the taste and appearance of much of our food is 
improved by cooking, especially by the combinations we 
make and by the sauces and dressings. The more appetiz- 


Figure 44. — Pork and Beans. 

This woman is packing pork and beans in one of Armour and Company’s 
plants. The filling and capping is done by automatic machinery. 

ing the food the more it stimulates the production of diges¬ 
tive juices and so the better it is digested. 

Some foods (milk, eggs, tender meat) digest better un¬ 
cooked. They should be cooked just enough to make them 
acceptable to the taste and to kill germs. Most cooked 
foods are softer than they would be raw and give our teeth 
less work in chewing. Our teeth would probably be rubbed 
and polished and so kept freer from the bacteria which cause 
decay if we ate most of our food uncooked so that we should 






REASONS FOR COOKING 


81 


have to chew it much more. The pressure on the teeth 
which comes in vigorously chewing firm food is thought to 
keep the roots also in better condition, less subject to ab¬ 
scesses and pyorrhea. The chewing of apples, hard crusts, 
tough meats, etc., furnishes desirable exercise for the teeth. 

As to the methods of cooking, the cook-books are usually 
an adequate guide. There are only a few hygienic points 
to touch. Objection is frequently made to frying in grease. 
One reason for this is that the grease coating keeps the 
watery digestive fluids off the food and retards digestion. 
If you find that fried foods distress you, don’t eat them. 
If you like them and they give you no discomfort they will 
do you no harm. Eggs improperly fried are likely to be 
leathery. If you like them fried learn to cook them soft 
and tender. 

There is no adequate reason for prescribing four or five 
hours’ boiling for any cereal. Experiments on their di¬ 
gestibility indicate that thirty or forty minutes’ cooking 
(some good authorities say less) renders them as digestible 
as three or four hours. 

It is a fad nowadays to boil vegetables in so little water 
that it can all be used in sauce or soup. This preserves the 
salts and sugar which might otherwise be thrown away. 
It may be that some people profit by using these salts, but 
it has not been shown that we need more than we get by the 
old method. 

The reason for the rule that condiments should be used 
sparingly in cooking and also on the table is that the condi¬ 
ment covers up the natural flavor of the food, so we miss 
the pleasure and digestive stimulus we should get from the 
many tastes of the various articles of diet. Strong condi¬ 
ments like mustard and pepper injure the sense of taste 
and irritate the lining of the stomach. 

The cooking which makes the food attractive and appe¬ 
tizing is usually the best. If the food seems to produce 


82 


FOOD 


indigestion we should study our way of eating, the quantity 
and quality of the food and our general method of living be¬ 
fore we blame the cooking. Such a simple thing as more 
chewing might remedy the evil. 

Give three good reasons for cooking food. Why do starchy 
foods need more water in cooking than do meats and vegetables? 
What ground is there for the saying that the cook-book is making 
us toothless? Explain how an egg can be properly fried. How 
long does it take a cereal to cook? On what grounds do people 
advocate using the water in which vegetables are boiled? Why 
should we not get the habit of using condiments freely? 



Figure 45 . — Packing Houses. 

This is a panorama of Armour and Company’s Chicago plant in which the 
slaughtering and dressing of meat animals and the curing and processing 
of meat take place. 

The subject of food has been so much mistaught by peo¬ 
ple ignorant of the principles which should control its use 
that we find it difficult to separate the chaff from the wheat 
in the precepts we hear. “ People eat too much ” is true 
of many well-to-do families. But the children of the poor, 
a large per cent of our people, do not get enough to eat. 
“ Fruit is golden in the morning, silver at noon and lead at 
night ” is nonsense. Fruit is wholesome at every meal. 
We should bring all such sayings to the test by seeing how 
they conform with the principles taught in this chapter. 
Even then we can not always decide. Each of us must try 




REASONS FOR COOKING 


83 


out in his own life the use of a food in question and deter¬ 
mine by a careful study whether it is good for him. The 
principle that what is good for most people will probably 
be good for us is a good starting point. We must be care¬ 
ful not to let our taste or our fancy override our judgment. 
When we have found what agrees with us we must not in¬ 
sist on prescribing it for everyone. 

Diet for the sick is too difficult a subject for this book. 
The physician, not some ignorant busybody, should give 
the directions. Many quacks are now making a fad of diet¬ 
ing to cure all sorts of ills. In so far as their prescriptions 
are guesswork or inspirations of the imagination they are 
worthless. Only the most carefully tested scientific studies 
are of any value, and the results of these can be secured only 
from registered, reputable physicians. 

Make a list of all the precepts or sayings about diet and eating 
that you get and point out the sound, and the irrational features 
of each. How can a person in health usually make a sensible de¬ 
cision about his own diet? Discuss the saying, “ What is one 
man’s meat is another’s poison.” Give illustrations of its truth. 
What suggestion would you make about the diet of the sick? 


CHAPTER V 


STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS 


0 thou invisible spirit of wine, if thou hast no name to be known 


by, let us call thee devil. 


— Othello. 


The use of tea, coffee, wine, and beer with our meals has 
resulted in so much ill health and suffering that we need, 
in connection with our study of foods, to clear up misunder¬ 
standings of the matter. Some of these beverages.are stimu¬ 
lants and others are narcotics. 

What Stimulants and Narcotics Are. — A stimulant is a 
substance which increases the activity of organs or cells. 
A narcotic decreases such activity. Both act on the nerve 
system more than on other tissues. Some drugs have both 
stimulating and narcotizing effects. For example, a spoon¬ 
ful of alcohol, taken in the form of wine or whisky, causes 
the heart to beat faster for a few minutes and quickens the 
imagination. But after the first effect has passed both the 
mental and the muscular activities are slowed down. 

What is a stimulant? What is a narcotic? What tissues do 
stimulants and narcotics affect most? Name a drug which has 
both a stimulating and a narcotizing effect. 

Tea and Coffee. — The common stimulating drugs we 
use abundantly are tea and coffee. They contain similar 
active principles, called caf'fe-in in coffee and the!in in tea. 
The differences in these beverages are due to very small 
quantities of substances which give the distinctive taste 
and odor to the drinks. Cocoa contains about the same 
drug but in such very small quantities that its effect is prac- 

84 




TEA AND COFFEE 


85 


tically negligible. The caffein is sometimes extracted from 
coffee and used, as a white powder or tablet, in medicine to 
stimulate the heart or brain. 

Although caffein is a strong stimulant there is so little of 
it in a cup of tea or coffee that its effect is usually mild. We 
differ considerably in our response to it, some people scarcely 
noticing any stimulation, others feeling it profoundly; many 
of us are kept awake by a single cup of coffee, taken at night. 

In tea leaves there is a puckering substance, tannin, such 
as is used in tanning leather. If the leaves are scalded and 
the water quickly poured off, the tea is free from this harm¬ 
ful substance. Some tea drinkers tan the lining of the stom¬ 
ach and seriously injure their digestion by drinking tea in 
which the leaves have been boiled till the tannin is extracted. 

It is not the occasional cup of tea at a social party or the 
coffee at a banquet that does the harm. Although their 
stimulating effect is readily noticed we have no evidence 
that it is harmful. It is the habitual use that works the 
injury. The man or woman who can not start the day com¬ 
fortably without a cup of coffee, who has a headache when 
the stimulant is lacking, is bound in the chains of a bad 
habit. The frequent use of a stimulant so changes the cells 
of the body, especially the brain cells, that they can not do 
their work except under such drug stimulus — and even 
then they do it imperfectly. It is the part of wisdom never 
to contract the bad habit. 

With children the use of a stimulant is worse than a bad 
habit. Their growing tissues are seriously injured by the 
drug. Caffein acts on the brain like a whip on a tired horse; 
it overworks it. Children need the foods that supply energy 
and the materials for growth, not an excitement to activity. 
Tea and coffee contain no food, only flavor and stimulant. 
They should not be given to children. 

What stimulating beverages are used at table? What active 
principles are in these drinks? What harmful effect of coffee is 


86 


STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS 


often noticed? How may tea be prepared so as to avoid one of 
its harmful effects? What objection is there to the habitual use 
of coffee at breakfast? At what age are we most injured by tea 
and coffee? 

Narcotics. — The narcotics which have for many years 
been in most common use are alcohol and tobacco. There 
are also several narcotic drugs which have been of great 
use in the practice of medicine and have been to consider¬ 
able extent perverted to harmful uses. Among these are 
opium, the dried, milky juice of the poppy, and two of its 
derivatives, morphine and co'deine (or code'ine). Co'ca-ine 
(commonly called cocaine'), another narcotic drug, is ob¬ 
tained from the coca plant. The headache tablets and a 
number of sleeping powders are called synthetic (put to¬ 
gether) drugs, for they are made by combining, in such a 
way as to produce the drug desired, several substances de¬ 
rived from coal tar. Chloroform and ether are also manu¬ 
factured substances. They are called anesthet'ics (no feel¬ 
ing) because they are used to produce unconsciousness and 
so render the patient insensible to the pain of an operation. 

Name as many narcotics as you can. What are synthetic drugs? 
What are anesthetics? 

The Value of Narcotics. — Before we study the harm 
resulting from the unwise use of narcotics, let us recognize 
the value they have when wisely used. When a person is 
suffering from such pain that he can not rest and seems un¬ 
able to endure it longer, an opium derivative or some other 
narcotic brings relief and sleep. The dread of the dentist's 
chair is largely removed by the use of nitrous oxid gas or a 
hypodermic injection of no'vocaine (a synthetic cocaine-like 
drug) into the gums. It would hardly be possible to ac¬ 
complish the wonderful results of modern operative surgery 
without the use of anesthetics. 

Name as many beneficial uses of narcotics as you can. 


ALCOHOLIC LIQUORS 


87 


Outlawed Narcotics. — The opium derivatives and cocaine 
have proved such a curse to people who have become ad¬ 
dicted to their use and such a temptation to thoughtless 
young people that they have been put under the ban of law. 
They may not be sold at retail except on a physician’s pre¬ 
scription. They get such a grip on those who become ad¬ 
dicted to them, and are such subtle poisons that they soon 
ruin both body and mind. 

No one, not even he who is 
enslaved by the drugs, has 
any defense for their per¬ 
verted use. 

The headache cures, 
though narcotic drugs, are 
not poisonous to the same 
degree as the opium deriva¬ 
tives and have not been out¬ 
lawed. Yet they undermine 
the health of those who take 
them habitually and severely 
poison when taken in too 
large quantities. 

What narcotics other than 
alcohol are allowed to be sold 
on prescription of an authorized 
physician only? How do such 
drugs affect those who use them habitually? What other useful 
narcotics result in harm when used too much? 

Alcoholic Liquors. — Alcohol, in all the great variety of 
beverages in which it occurs (wine, beer, cider, ale, whisky, 
brandy, rum, vodka, sa'ke, etc.), is produced by the growth 
of yeast in a sugary liquid. The quantity of alcohol varies 
from two or three per cent up to more than fifty per cent. 

The effect of the drink depends more on the quantity of 
alcohol taken than on the kind of liquor. Since the United 


SKILL AND ENDURANCE IMPAIRED 

BY DRINK 

Tests in Target-Shooting in Swedish Army 
I. SKILLED TESTS 

Thirty shots fired in quick succession 
Non-Drinking Days: Average 24 hits out 
of 30 shots 

Drinking Days: Average 3 hits out of 
30 shots 


Alcohol taken equal to amount in 1% to 2 
pints of 5 per cent beer, 20 to 30 minutes 
before shooting, and an equal amount the 
night before 

II. ENDURANCE TESTS 

Non-Drinking Days: 360 shots fired be¬ 
fore exhaustion 


Drinking Days : 278 shots fired before ex¬ 
haustion 


Alcohol taken 30 minutes before test was 
amount contained in about l 1 /^ pints of 
4 per cent beer 


Figure 46. 




88 


STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS 


States government has outlawed the traffic in alcoholic 
liquors for beverage, the friends of alcohol have been plead¬ 
ing for the use of beer and light wine (5 to 15 per cent alco¬ 
hol), claiming that only the strong liquors (30 to 50 per cent 
alcohol) are harmful. But a quart of 6 per cent beer con¬ 
tains as much alcohol as a drink of whisky (2 ounces). 
The free use of wine and beer is followed by the usual train 
of alcoholic evils. 

Since alcohol has been outlawed in the United States it 
has been extensively produced in home brews and illicit 
stills. People addicted to the use of alcohol have resorted 
to all sorts of expedients to get the drink they crave. There 
have been so many hundreds of deaths and more hundreds 
of serious injuries from drinking various crude concoctions 
that everyone should be warned of the danger. Wood alco¬ 
hol has sometimes been put into drinks to give them a 
“ kick.” It is a terrible poison, made by a chemical pro¬ 
cess from wood. It often renders its victims blind if it does 
not kill them outright. It should never be drunk or used 
on the skin. Denatured alcohol is common grain alcohol 
into which some substance has been put to render it unfit 
for drinking. No matter how it is worked over and mixed 
with other substances it is always a dangerous ingredient 
of any beverage, but it may be used on the skin. 

How is alcohol produced? On what grounds do some people 
advocate the use of wine and beer while condemning whisky? 
Why is this difference not justifiable? What particular dangers 
are encountered in the “ home brews ” and illicit liquors? 

Alcohol’s Devastation. — After all the centuries through 
which wine has held a place of honor it is at last, like a de¬ 
throned king, condemned by the discerning and discredited 
by the common people. Only those whom use has made 
its devoted adherents still pay homage at its shrine. Alco¬ 
hol is oxidized in the body and can therefore give us energy, 
as food can. But it costs ten times as much as good food, 


ALCOHOL'S DEVASTATION 


89 


it poisons the nerve centers and deranges the blood circu¬ 
lation, and it ruins the digestive organs when used exten¬ 
sively. It has been thought to stimulate digestion and it 
does stimulate the digestive glands to greater activity. But 
it interferes with the action of the digestive juices, so that 
it hinders more than it helps the digestive process. 

A curious thing about 
alcohol, as well as other 
narcotic drugs, is that it 
gives the user a mistaken 
impression of its effect on 
him, “ wine is a deceiv¬ 
er ” in almost every par¬ 
ticular. The man who 



Figure 47. — Alcohol Impairs Scholar- 


The black area represents poor scholar¬ 
ship, the shaded area fair scholarship, and 
uses it is sure that he is the white area good scholarship. 

A. Pupils who never use alcohol. Forty- 
two per cent have high marks and only 
nine per cent poor. 

B. Pupils who are given wine, beer, or 


shooting straighter, is 
lifting more, is comput¬ 
ing more accurately, is 


writing more fluently, af- rum 0 nce a day. 
ter a drink of wine. c. Pupils who are given alcoholic 
But the actual test shows drinks twice a day. 

that his marksmanship Investigation by E. Bayr, School Director, 
Vienna. 

is poorer, his muscular On the authority of the Scientific Temperance 
power lower, his mathe- Federation, Boston, Massachusetts. 

matical work slower and less accurate when he has been 
taking alcohol in any form. 

A little alcohol does render some people very talkative. 
We all have abundant impulses to speak, but as a rule our 
judgment sits in control limiting our speech to what seems 
worth while. Alcohol impairs this judgment, thus taking 
off the brakes and leaving the speech impulses uncontrolled, 
and we say in abundance what in our saner moments we 
would suppress. 

Alcohol weakens the body’s resistance to disease. Given 
to children, it stunts their growth and mental development. 








90 


STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS 


Used in excess by parents, it renders the children they pro¬ 
duce defective in vigor, weak-minded, and, in extreme cases, 
idiotic. It is a race destroyer. 

If all the good food material which is wasted in the manu¬ 
facture of alcoholic liquors were given to the starving it 

would afford them abundant 
OIAbs,ainers Sick ’ I8Spercem die - relief. The production of al- 
J coholic liquors impoverishes 

Of Moderate Drinkers Sick, 25 percent die. the World. 



Of Excessive Drinkers Sick, 52 percent die. 



Figure 48. — Alcohol and Pneu¬ 
monia. 

Drinkers of alcoholic liquors are 
more likely to have pneumonia than 
are abstainers and are more likely to 
die of it. 

Osier and McCrea, Nat. Temp. Quar., 
Dec., 1911. By authority of the Scientific 
Temperance Federation, Boston, Mass. 


What becomes of the alcohol 
in the liquors that are drunk? 
Why is alcohol not a good sub¬ 
stitute for carbohydrates and 
fats ? How does alcohol affect di¬ 
gestion? Give instances of the 
way in which alcohol deceives its 
user. How can a narcotic drug 
increase any activity ? How does 
alcohol affect children? How 
does it affect the offspring of par¬ 
ents who use it ? Discuss the use 
of alcohol from an economic 
standpoint. 


Tobacco. — Now that the prohibition laws have restricted 
the use of alcohol, tobacco remains the prevailing narcotic 
drug. Few people claim that tobacco does us any good 
aside from the pleasure derived from its use. Some men 
think that an after-dinner cigar helps digest the meal, but 
there is no adequate reason for thinking so. We do not 
know just how much we pay for the pleasure of smoking a 
cigar, since comparatively little scientific study has been 
made of the physiological effects of tobacco, but we do know 
that the price is enormous. Tobacco produces its agree¬ 
able effects of relaxation and comfort by decreasing the 
activity of the brain, by poisoning the nerve cells. 

The active principle of tobacco, nic'otine, is a deadly poi¬ 
son. The reason it does not kill outright the people who 






TOBACCO 


91 


use it is that they get very little of the nicotine which the 
tobacco contains. The body can gradually become accus¬ 
tomed to small quantities of this poison, as it can to many 
other poisons, but this does not mean that the poison does 
no harm. The poisoning of the whole body of a child who 
uses the drug is so great A 
as to interfere with its 
growth. The heart espe- B 
cially is weakened. The 
injury to the heart ap¬ 
pears in the loss of “ wind ” 
when a boy is engaged in 
an athletic game. The 


c mm 


Figure 49. — Smoking Handicaps 
Students. 

Students in Clark College, 1906-1909. 
The black area represents habitual 
weak heart can not send smokers, the shaded area occasional 
sufficient oxygen-carrying smokers, and the white area non-smokers. 

blood to the brain; there- A - number of stu(ients; B < number 
* ., , ., . . failing in studies; C, number winning 

fore the breathing is la- hono ^ s 

bored in a vain effort, to About one fifth of the students were 
supply the oxygen. The habitual smokers, one fourth occasional 
boy who smokes cigarettes smokers, and more than half non-smokers; 
can not get his lesson SO yet the habitual smokers furnished more 
,, , . 11,111 than half the failures (students dropped 

well or shoot a basketball , ,, . . . . . 

from college or required to take another 
SO straight as the boy who year), while the non-smokers furnished 
does not use tobacco. less than one fourth; about one tenth of 
In adults also tobacco the honors were won by habitual smok- 
slows down the mental ers ’ while over two ,hirds were won ^ 

.... , , ., non-smokers. 

activity and decreases the with permission of the Scientific Temper . 
accuracy of the muscular ance Federation, Boston, Massachusetts. 

work. The trembling hands of many thousand men owe 
their weakness to excessive smoking. We strongly suspect, 
though it has not been proved, that much heart failure in 
old age is due to the use of tobacco. 

In addition to its physiological harm tobacco exacts an 
enormous financial toll. We pay more for this harmful 
drug than we do for all our schools. We give our richest 







92 


STIMULANTS AND NARCOTICS 


fields to its production. If the land and labor wasted in 
growing tobacco were devoted to growing food we could 
feed all the starving of the earth. 

Tobacco does not bring its victims to such degradation 
as do alcohol and morphine; but can you think that the man 
who puffs his smoke into the faces of his neighbors or into 
the air they must breathe, usually making them uncom¬ 
fortable and sometimes making their heads ache, has not 
lost a considerable degree of courtesy, in gratifying his yearn¬ 
ing for the narcotic to which he has become addicted ? 

How does tobacco produce its agreeable effect? What is nico¬ 
tine? Indicate the harm it does to children. What harm does it 
do to adults? How can we realize the enormous financial cost of 
tobacco ? 

The Drug Habit. —■_ This phrase is commonly applied to 
the perverted use of cocaine and of opium and its deriva¬ 
tives, but it is just as fitting to the use of alcoholic liquors, 
tobacco, tea, and coffee. Any of the stimulants or narcotics 
used habitually creates an unnatural appetite for itself, a 
craving which in extreme cases becomes an overmastering 
passion. An alcoholic drunkard gives up his business, his 
honor, the things he holds most dear, to satisfy his craving 
for drink. The morphine or opium fiend overrides every 
scruple for truth and justice and goes to an extreme of mean¬ 
ness or even crime to get the drug which will gratify his ab¬ 
normal appetite. 

We have no natural appetite for stimulants and narcotics 
as we have for food and water. If we did not cultivate the 
desire by repeated use we should never have it. And no 
one can habitually use any of these drugs without suffering 
some degree of injury and at times feeling the chains it binds 
around him. Therefore the sensible thing is never to begin 
their use. 

How is the drug habit acquired? To what extremes may it 
carry its victim? How can we avoid a drug habit? 


REFORM AND RECOVERY 


93 


Reform and Recovery. — Though it is far easier to avoid 
forming a drug habit than to break the habit, those who 
have the misfortune to be the victims of a drug can free 
themselves from its shackles if they will. We have hospi¬ 
tals and sanatoria for the treatment of the worst cases of 
alcoholism and morphinism. Even people thoroughly ad¬ 
dicted to the use of tobacco and mild narcotics can throw 
off their chains with the aid of a good physician. Though 
many people try to reform and fail, there is hope for every¬ 
one. The more deeply mired one is in the bad habit the 
more determinedly he should devote himself to winning his 
freedom. He should remove himself from temptation and 
put himself under the direction of a skilled physician, whose 
orders he should follow implicitly. Few people have so 
thoroughly ruined themselves that they can not recover a 
large degree of strength, and most addicts can in time be 
restored to almost perfect health. 

How may a drunkard or morphine fiend avoid the early death 
toward which he is headed? What means should he take to make 
sure of reform? Do you think people can be cured against their 
will ? Are any too far gone for recovery ? 



CHAPTER VI 


DIGESTION 


Now good digestion wait on appetite 
And health on both ! 

_ — Macbeth. 

When Should We Eat. — We have discussed in a previous 
chapter what we should eat. The next natural question 
about eating is when. We all recognize the need of children’s 



Figure 50. — School Lunch. 

The anemic children in some schools are provided with an extra lunch of 
milk and sandwiches, and are made to lie down and rest an hour in the 
afternoon. 

eating more frequently than grown-ups, — babies, every 
three hours in daytime. Children five or six years old may 
well have a lunch in the middle of the forenoon and again 
in the afternoon in addition to the three meals. For men 
doing a day’s work it is convenient to divide the work-day 

94 






HOW WE SHOULD EAT 


95 


into two nearly equal parts with a lunch or dinner during 
the rest period. 

The practice of going without breakfast may be a good 
thing for some people, but young persons should not adopt 
it except on a physician’s recommendation. Growing boys 
and girls should have a substantial breakfast without coffee; 
a lunch or dinner at noon; if they are hungry or under¬ 
weight, a lunch during an afternoon rest; and dinner or 
supper in the evening. The often heard objection to eat¬ 
ing between meals must be interpreted reasonably. A 
lunch consisting of a glass of milk and a sandwich between 
meals is often advisable for growing children. But frequent 
nibbling, especially of sweets, is objectionable. This com¬ 
monly gives us more food than we need, and is likely to re¬ 
sult in indigestion — fermentation of food in the stomach. 

What conditions govern the time of eating? What is the best 
planning of meals for growing boys and girls? Under what cir¬ 
cumstances may it be advisable to eat between meals? What is 
a reasonable lunch ” between meals? What is the wrong prac¬ 
tice of eating between meals, and why? 

How We Should Eat; Chewing. — It would seem that 
such a thing as eating would be done instinctively in a hy¬ 
gienic way. Yet some of us have fallen into unhealthful 
habits. A peaceful, cheerful state of mind at meal time 
conduces to good digestion. We should endeavor to lay 
aside our worries and grouches and make the meal pleasant 
to others as well as to ourselves. The courtesies and for¬ 
malities of table etiquette, in so far as they are directed to 
these ends, are hygienic rules. 

The admonition to chew the food well applies to all foods, 
because the smaller the particles the more rapidly and more 
thoroughly they digest; but it is particularly valuable with 
reference to vegetable foods. A chunk of meat in the stom¬ 
ach goes to pieces because the gastric juice dissolves the 
connecting fibers that hold it together. But the vegetable 


96 


DIGESTION 


cell walls which hold together a piece of vegetable are not 
affected by the gastric juice. Therefore, a chunk of vegeta¬ 
ble swallowed entire goes through the digestive tract as one 
piece; and the food in the middle of it, not being reached 
by the juices, is imperfectly digested. 

Moreover, the sali'va digests starch, producing a sugar 
which has an agreeable taste. The more the starchy foods 
are chewed, therefore, the more they are digested in the 
mouth, and the better they taste. Digestion in the mouth 
lessens the work of the intestine, and agreeable taste stimu¬ 
lates the secretion of gastric juices. Thus thorough chew¬ 
ing is an important part of the process of digestion. 

When the food has been sufficiently chewed, it is moist 
enough with saliva to be swallowed easily. To wash down 
imperfectly chewed food with a drink is unhygienic as well 
as uncouth. The drinking of water before, during, and after 
a meal is not only unobjectionable but even advisable, pro¬ 
vided it is not employed as an aid to bolting one’s food. 
Persons whose other movements are quick and vigorous 
are likely to eat rapidly. There is little objection to this 
so long as the food is chewed thoroughly. To prolong the 
dinner to an hour or more may have a social value, but it is 
no more hygienic than to eat it in twenty to thirty minutes. 

How does the state of mind affect digestion? What should we 
do to promote the suitable “ atmosphere ” at dinner? Why is it 
advisable to chew any food well? Why is it even more impor¬ 
tant to chew vegetables thoroughly? On what kind of food does the 
saliva act? Since starch is tasteless how does chewing it give us 
a taste sensation? Why is it unhygienic to take a drink while 
chewing a mouthful of food? Why is a prolonged meal, if it does 
not result in overeating, likely to be more hygienic than a hasty 
dinner? 

Care of the Teeth. — We can not chew without teeth, 
and those that nature provides are more efficient than those 
the dentist makes. Therefore we should do our best to 
preserve what we have. 


CARE OF THE TEETH 


97 


Children should be taught to take care of their first set 
of teeth chiefly because the habit of caring for the teeth 
will thus be well established by the time it is most needed. 
Moreover, their mouths will be in more healthy condition, 
their digestion will be better, and their first teeth will be 
preserved until the permanent teeth are ready to come. 
Early loss of the first or milk teeth often results in under¬ 
development of the jaw and unsightly and inconvenient 
crowding of the permanent teeth. The first permanent 
tooth to appear is the molar, which comes when the child is 
about six years old. It is often the first permanent tooth 
to decay and should have especial care. 

The care of the teeth is chiefly a matter of keeping them 
clean. A clean tooth is not likely to decay. The chief 
places where food remains undisturbed to decay and cause 
cavities are next to the gums and between the teeth and in 
the depressions in the crowns of the molars. These places 
should receive especial attention. 

Food particles between the teeth should be removed with 
a soft pick or, better, with a waxed thread. Silk dental floss 
is the best thread. Wrap the end of the thread twice around 
the finger which is placed in the mouth and hold the other 
end of the thread in the other hand. By a sawing motion 
force the thread carefully between the teeth and rub it 
against their surfaces. 

The surface of the teeth is best cleaned with a brush, 
which should be applied to both the tongue side and the lip 
side and to the tops of the molars. The brush should be 
moved in a rolling motion from the gums to the teeth. This 
will avoid pricking the bristles under the gums. The brush 
should press lightly, especially against the gums and the 
roof of the mouth. If care is taken not to injure the gums 
they become somewhat toughened, so that the teeth can be 
cleaned after every meal without hurting them. It is espe¬ 
cially important that the teeth be cleaned before going to bed. 


98 


DIGESTION 



Tooth paste or powder is largely soap and some soft pow¬ 
der like chalk, with a little flavor and disinfectant. Gritty 
powder like pumice cuts the enamel and should be avoided. 
A little on the end of a wooden toothpick may be used in 
smoothing up a rough or stained spot, but if the dentist 
Gum Enamel Puip Cavity cleans your teeth once or 

twice a year you will 
have no occasion for 
using a gritty powder. 

After the teeth have 
been brushed there re¬ 
mains on their surfaces, 
especially between them, 

Abscess Root Canal Bone R glU©-Uke depOSit Called 

Figure 51. — Sections of Teeth. 7 YIU dn. This enables the 

The first tooth is an incisor with an bacteria to cling to these 
abscess on the root, the second is a molar, surfaces and to start the 
and the third a healthy incisor. process of decay. The 

most harmless and effective way to dissolve the mucin 
and be rid of it is to rinse the mouth, after brushing, with 
lime water. 

To make the lime water, put a handful of common lime, 
such as is used in making plaster, into a pint or quart jar 
and fill the jar with water. As soon as it settles pour off 
the water in which there will probably be dust or dirt par¬ 
ticles, and fill the jar with fresh water. As soon as the lime 
settles again, the water above it will be clear and ready for 
use. As fast as the water is used up, add more. The hand¬ 
ful of lime will last several months. To use the lime water 
take a small mouthful and, closing the lips, swish it back 
and forth between the teeth. Spit it out and rinse the 
mouth with clean water. 

A cavity should be filled as soon as it appears. To this 
end the teeth should be inspected by a dentist occasionally, 
every few months if they are weak, less frequently if they 







CHEWING GUM 


99 


always prove sound. Remember that “a stitch in time 
saves nine.” The discomfort and cost of a small filling are 
nothing compared with the pain and expense of an extensive 
repair operation. 

There is no danger of your overrating the value of sound 
teeth. You can not chew well with sensitive teeth. You 
can not maintain perfect health with decayed teeth in your 
mouth. Decayed teeth are one of the most common causes of 
indigestion. An abscess (a mass of pus) at the root of a tooth 
may not only cause a swollen and aching jaw but may be 
the 1 focus of infection ” which produces pain in the joints 
of the arm or leg and much ill health. 

Give as many reasons as you can why children should keep their 
first set of teeth clean. Describe in detail the process of cleaning 
the teeth. What more should be done to check decay in the teeth? 
Why should pumice not be used frequently ? What evil results 
come from decayed teeth ? 

Chewing Gum. — The use of gum as a promoter of di¬ 
gestion and as a tooth preserver has been so widely adver¬ 
tised and is deceiving so many people that it is worth while 
to set the matter straight. Gum does rub over the more 
exposed surfaces of the teeth and clean them a little, but it 
utterly fails to clean close to the gums and between teeth. 
The places it cleans are constantly rubbed by the lips and 
tongue and are thus somewhat cleaned without any gum. 

Chewing stimulates the flow of saliva; but saliva unmixed 
with food does no digestive work. The saliva digests starch 
in the mouth, and in the stomach only before the gastric 
juice reaches the food. As soon as the gastric juice mixes 
with saliva, the work of the saliva is stopped. Pints of 
saliva swallowed after eating digest nothing. This futile 
production of saliva is a hindrance rather than a help to 
digestion. 

Why is gum practically worthless as a tooth cleaner? Why 
does not the saliva swallowed in gum chewing digest starch in the 
stomach ? 


100 


DIGESTION 



Stomach Digestion. — After the food is in the stomach 
we can do little to promote its digestion. Worry and fear 
retard the secretion of digestive juices. Violent muscular 
activity may impede the work of the stomach. These un¬ 
favorable influences should be avoided at dinner and after. 

The mind does not 
work at its best when 
the stomach is full, 
because the stomach 
instead of the brain is 
getting the large sup¬ 
ply of blood. But a 
little study or light 
work immediately af¬ 
ter dinner does not 
impair digestion. 

Bacteria cause most 
of stomach indiges¬ 
tion. The normal gas¬ 
tric juice contains hy¬ 
drochloric acid, which 
kills most of the bac¬ 
teria in the food and 
checks the develop¬ 
ment of the remain¬ 
der. But if the hy¬ 
drochloric acid is defi¬ 
cient, the bacteria grow 
and produce irritating 
substances which cause the discomfort of indigestion. These 
irritating substances coming back into the esophagus pro¬ 
duce what is called “heartburn.” The longer the food 
stays in the stomach, the more it ferments and the greater 
is the distress. Therefore quick-digesting foods are recom¬ 
mended to those who suffer with stomach indigestion. A 


Figure 52. — Professor Theobald Smith. 

(Born 1859.) 

He has made extensive studies in animal 
diseases; has established standards for the 
inspection of meat; has added much to our 
understanding of human tuberculosis and 
early promoted the use of antitoxin. 




STOMACH DIGESTION 


101 


healthy stomach can take care of foods which digest 
slowly so there is not the same need of choosing for it 
foods which digest rapidly. 

In addition to choosing foods which remain in the stomach 
but a short time before they pass on to the intestine, we can 
do much to relieve indigestion by limiting the quantity of 
food to the necessary minimum, by using less of the starches 
and sugars, and by chewing the food thoroughly. Eat¬ 
ing in a leisurely manner and chewing thoroughly are the 
most easily applied and most efficient remedies for indiges¬ 
tion. 

Stomach injuries are frequently caused by the excessive 
use of tobacco, especially chewing tobacco, and alcohol. 
Except in extreme cases the stomach usually recovers when 
the use of these narcotics is stopped. 

Most stomach ailments are transient and are relieved by 
a wise choice of food and by hygienic eating. But there 
are serious diseases which sometimes affect this organ. The 
worst of these is cancer. If it is neglected it grows gradually 
worse until it results in death. There is great hope of cur¬ 
ing a cancer if it is taken in time. Therefore, if one has 
stomach pains which are not overcome by a careful observ¬ 
ance of the rules of hygiene, he should not temporize with 
patent medicines and quack stomach doctors, but go at 
once to a competent physician and find out exactly what 
the trouble is. A sick stomach needs a physician, but a 
well stomach should be let alone. 

The best precept for one in health is: Eat rationally and 
forget you have a stomach. 

What digestion-retarding influences should be avoided at din¬ 
ner? How may a light lunch promote study and a heavy dinner 
retard mental work? What is the chief cause of indigestion? 
What deficiency in the gastric juice results in indigestion? What 
is “ heartburn ”? Explain how the method of eating affects the 
health of the stomach. Why does a drunkard usually have poor 
digestion? Why should a person having frequent stomach pains 


102 


DIGESTION 


not put off seeking medical advice? What precept should we ob¬ 
serve in caring for our stomachs? 

Using the table below, make out a list of foods for a person suf¬ 
fering from stomach indigestion. What foods should he avoid? 

Food usually begins to move from the stomach into the 
intestine a few minutes after it is swallowed. The time it 
stays in the stomach depends partly on its quantity. For 
instance, the last of 100 grams of meat is sent into the intes¬ 
tine within three or four hours, while twice as much meat 
would last an hour longer. The following table gives ap¬ 
proximately the lengths of time foods have been observed 
to remain in the stomach. 


TIME OF STOMACH DIGESTION 


Beef, boiled 

Hrs. 

2 

Min. 

45 

Milk, boiled 

Hr 8 . 

2 

Min. 

00 

fried 

4 

00 

fresh 

1 

30 

broiled 

3 

00 

Eggs, soft 

3 

00 

Pork steak 

3 

15 

hard 

3 

30 

roasted 

5 

15 

raw 

2 

00 

Mutton, broiled 

3 

00 

Custard, baked 

2 

45 

Veal, broiled 

4 

00 

Fresh bread 

3 

30 

Fowl, boiled or roast 

4 

00 

Sponge cake 

2 

30* 

Turkey 

2 

30 

Potatoes, boiled 

3 

30 

Brains, boiled 

1 

45 

Parsnips, boiled 

2 

30 

Liver, broiled 

2 

00 

Cabbage, boiled 

4 

30 

Rice, boiled 

1 

00 

raw 

* 2 

00 


Intestinal Digestion. — The work of the intestine can be 
directly influenced even less than that of the stomach, but 
indirectly we can do much. The digestive fluids which 
meet the food in the intestine are all alkaline and quickly 
neutralize the acid gastric juice. This makes the condi¬ 
tion of the intestine very suitable for the growth of bacteria. 
There are always several kinds growing there, producing 
no harmful results. If we do not rid the intestine of its 


INTESTINAL DIGESTION 


103 


undigested residue once or oftener a day, the harmful bac¬ 
teria may increase to such enormous numbers as to cause 
illness. The toxins they produce and the nitrogenous wastes 
which should be carried off in the bowels are then absorbed 
in sufficient quantity to cause headache and fever. 

Certain kinds of germs produce substances which stimu¬ 
late the muscles in the walls of the intestine to contract 
vigorously and drive along the contents before the water 
in the contents has time to be absorbed, and we have a liquid 
discharge from the bowels as in diarrhea and dysentery. 
These germs often produce gases also. The abdominal 
pains of intestinal indigestion are caused largely by the 
violent contractions of the intestinal muscles. 

The intestine is the place where germs of typhoid fever 
and cholera start their growth. Cooking kills these germs. 
The bacteria are often brought to the food after it is pre¬ 
pared, on the untidy hands of the cook or by flies. Cholera 
germs are commonly, introduced in the drinking water. 
Children often get germs into the intestine by putting dirty 
fingers into the mouth or by taking food with dirty hands. 

Several kinds of intestinal worms also (trichina, tape 
worm, round worm) take advantage of the favorable con¬ 
ditions for growth in the digestive tract and lodge here. 
The way to avoid all such parasites is to be careful not to 
introduce the eggs or minute worms in our food. Care and 
cleanliness with food will prevent most intestinal troubles. 
The trouble can commonly be relieved by medicines which 
kill the bacteria or other parasites and stimulate the bowels 
to expel the offenders. 

In our Southern States and the West Indies the hook worm 
infects the intestines of many people and produces an im¬ 
mense amount of sickness and death. The worms when 
very small enter the body through the skin of the feet or 
legs. (People who go barefoot often contract the disease.) 
The worms get into the blood stream and are carried about 


104 


DIGESTION 


until they finally lodge in the lining of the intestine. If 
nothing is done to expel them, they gradually weaken the 
victim till in the end death comes to his relief. A little 
medicinal treatment will nearly always cure a patient who 
is not too weak. People in the hook-worm region should 
consult a physician promptly if they are pale and generally 
“ run down.” Hook-worm eggs are discharged from the 
body, and become scattered about the fields, because of the 
lack of toilet conveniences among the poorer classes. Proper 
sanitary precautions would check the spread of the hook 
worm. 

Why is the intestine better adapted to the growth of parasites 
than the stomach? How does injury come from retaining feces 
several days in the intestine? What causes diarrhea and dysen¬ 
tery? What causes “ stomachache ” ? Name two diseases which 
start with germs in the intestine. What worms develop in the 
intestine? How can intestinal parasites be avoided? How can 
intestinal indigestion commonly be cured? In what part of the 
country is the hook worm common? How does it enter the body? 
Where does it lodge and grow ? How can its spread be prevented ? 

Infant Mortality. — Babies suffer worse than other peo¬ 
ple from intestinal indigestion, because they have not de¬ 
veloped resistance to germs and because their food is so 
liable to contamination. In some localities more than half 
the babies under one year of age die of this disease. It is 
often called “ summer complaint.” It is worse in the 
summer because the baby’s food, milk, is more contami¬ 
nated with bacteria in warm weather. The food of breast¬ 
fed babies is free from the harmful germs and they suffer 
relatively little from intestinal indigestion though sometimes 
they get bacteria into their digestive tract by putting all 
sorts of things into their mouths. Therefore the mother 
who is able to do so should nurse her baby. She runs a 
serious risk if she refuses this natural function. 

If the baby must be bottle fed the greatest care should 
be taken that the bottles and nipples be kept clean, scrupu- 


CONSTIPATION 


105 


lously free from harmful germs, and that the milk be the 
best possible — certified milk is the best in large cities. If 
there is any suspicion of the milk it should be boiled. A 
young mother should be under the careful supervision of a 
doctor in feeding her baby. A consultation once a month 
is advisable if the baby is well, more frequently if the baby 
is not in good condition. 

Why do babies suffer more from intestinal indigestion than do 
grown-ups? Why is summer the worst season? What is the best 
precaution a mother can take to protect her baby from intestinal 
indigestion? How can the nursing bottles and nipples be made 
free from bacteria? What kind of milk should be used? How 
should it be cared for? Why is it necessary to consult the doctor 
frequently ? 

Constipation. — Nearly all of us have occasionally had 
the feeling of dullness and slight headache that accom¬ 
pany the milder forms of constipation. When this condi¬ 
tion becomes chronic (repeated or continuous) it is a seri¬ 
ous problem. A doctor can give a dose of medicine which 
usually sets the patient right in a few hours. But to de¬ 
pend on such medicines ( cathar'tics ) habitually is a bad prac¬ 
tice. They are somewhat poisonous and lose their efficiency 
with repeated use. Neither is “ flushing the colon ” with 
an injection of water (called en'ema) to be recommended as 
a daily practice. It does wash out the bowel and bring 
temporary relief, but it does not tend to restore the bowel 
to normal activity. 

Usually constipation is inexcusable. We could prevent 
it if we would. It is often owing to lack of exercise, es¬ 
pecially the exercise which bends the body so as to move the 
organs in the abdomen. For those who are unable to ex¬ 
ercise vigorously, massage of the abdomen is beneficial. 

Often constipation results from the eating of too little 
coarse food. The muscles of the intestinal wall which con¬ 
tract to move the food along must have sufficient bulk to 


106 


DIGESTION 


act upon. A constant diet of liquid foods, cheeses, con¬ 
centrated sweets, and such other food as leaves little indi¬ 
gestible substance in the intestine tends toward consti¬ 
pation. Bulk is needed to stimulate the activity of the 
muscles in the intestinal wall. This bulk is obtained by 
eating food which contains considerable woody or gristly 
material. This is another reason why vegetables and whole 
wheat or bran bread should form a substantial part of our 
diet. In addition to the digestible elements in these foods, 
there is an abundance of cellulose which does not digest 
but furnishes the necessary bulk to promote intestinal ac¬ 
tivity. 

People who drink too little water also suffer from consti¬ 
pation. If the body has too little water, it extracts the 
water from the intestines, leaving the contents hard and 
dry. The blood should supply the mucous membrane of 
the colon with so much water that the membrane will freely 
produce a secretion to keep its surface lubricated. 

Fruit is not a luxury. It is an essential in our diet. Most 
fruits, especially those containing acids, such as lemons, 
oranges, grapefruit, and apples have a laxative effect. 
Prunes, figs, raisins, and grapes are also useful in preventing 
constipation. 

Oil in the food also promotes intestinal action. Only a 
portion of the fats we eat is absorbed. The remainder is 
carried away with the refuse, and acts as a lubricant for the 
intestinal tract. Increasing the amount of fat in one’s 
food, if it can be done without upsetting one’s digestion, 
often helps in overcoming constipation. Some prepara¬ 
tions of petroleum are used to this end, often very effec¬ 
tively. They are not cathartics like castor oil, nor foods 
like olive oil, but merely mechanical lubricants. They 
are not poisonous, and do not lose their efficiency with re¬ 
peated use. On the contrary, in stubborn cases of consti¬ 
pation, the regular use of such a lubricant for a time, com- 


ABSORPTION 


107 


bined with other means mentioned above, often serves to 
restore the bowel to normal condition. 

What symptoms commonly accompany constipation? Why 
is the habitual use of cathartics objectionable ? To what is chronic 
constipation sometimes due? What aside from taking medicine 
can be done to relieve it? Why is a diet of abundant cellulose 
good to relieve constipation ? 

Absorption. — The pro¬ 
cess of getting the digested 
food from the cavity of 
the intestine into the blood 
stream in which it is car¬ 
ried to all parts of the 
body is called absorption. 

The first step in the pro¬ 
cess is getting the food 
through the mucous mem¬ 
brane. This work goes on so slowly that an enormous sur¬ 
face of membrane is necessary. To form such a large surface 
the membrane instead of being smooth lies in many cross 
folds, which increases its area considerably. But the chief 
structures to this end are the villi, in the small intestine 
only, which multiply the surface many fold. The villi are 
finger-like projections of the mucous membrane, so numerous 
and so small as to have a general similarity to the coarse 
nap of plush. 

The food is taken in by the mucous membrane — partly 
by a simple mechanical process of “ soaking it up ” and 
partly by the vital activity of the cells — and is passed on 
to the tubes behind the membrane. The sugar and proteins 
pass into the capillaries and are carried off at once in the 
blood stream. The oil (or fat) can not get into the capil¬ 
laries but is taken up in the lac'teals. The lacteals are 
minute lymphatic tubes. They are so-called from the Latin 
word lac, meaning milk, because their contents have a milky 




108 


DIGESTION 


appearance. The oils taken up by the lacteals are passed 
on into the lymphatic circulation and are poured with the 
remainder of the lymph into the large vein in the left side 
of the neck. 

The cells of the mucous membrane take up any fluid from 
the intestinal cavity. Though they absorb some substances 

more readily than others, they 
are unable to separate the 
wholesome from the harmful. 
Our care, then) is to keep 
harmful substances out of the 
intestine by eating only that 
which is wholesome and by 
regularly ridding ourselves of 
the undigested residue. 

What is absorption ? By what 
means is the surface of the mucous 
membrane of the small intestine 
greatly increased? How are the 
sugars and proteins carried away 
from the intestine ? The fats and 
oils? Why may absorption by 
the cells of the mucous membrane 
lead to trouble? What can we do 
to prevent such trouble? 

Food Storage. — The blood 
containing the sugar and pro¬ 
tein is collected from the cap¬ 
illaries of all the intestine by the portal vein , carried 
to the liver, and distributed through a set of capillaries 
there. The cells of the liver take out of the blood pass¬ 
ing through that organ a large part of the sugar, change 
it to gly'cogen (a substance similar to starch) and store 
that substance temporarily. When the sugar in the blood 
has been largely used up by the cells of the body, glycogen 
is changed back to sugar and passed out' to replenish the 



The mucous membrane of the 
small intestine is covered with such 
villi, whose function is to absorb the 
food. The blood and the lymph 
vessels which appear within the 
villus carry away the food absorbed. 








DIABETES 


109 


blood. Glycogen is also formed and stored in the muscle 
cells. 

Fat is food stored in more permanent form. If we are 
getting fat, we are eating more food than we need for our 
current use. A little fat is a good insurance against a tem¬ 
porary food shortage, but much fat is an extra weight to 
carry around and is nothing short of a nuisance. It is 
avoided by athletes and is a handicap to anyone who has 
strenuous physical work to do. Fat can be made in the 
body from material supplied by food of any class, but it is 
made chiefly from the carbohydrates. If one is getting 
too fat, it is advisable to drop sugar from the diet and to eat 
less of such starchy foods as white breads, cakes, and pas¬ 
tries. 

Trace the course of sugar in the body after it is taken up by the 
capillaries. How does the liver store food? Where else is gly¬ 
cogen stored? In what form more lasting is food stored in the 
body? Why is it not desirable to be very fat? How can we avoid 
becoming too fat? 

Diabetes. — Diabe'tes is a disease which results from a 
failure in the sugar-storing process. The pancreas pro¬ 
duces, in addition to a digestive fluid, an internal secretion 
which circulates through the body and stimulates the liver 
and muscles to store glycogen. Without this internal secre¬ 
tion the glycogen-storing process fails, and large quantities 
of sugar remain in the blood. When the blood is so over¬ 
loaded, a considerable quantity of sugar filters out through 
the kidneys. There is good hope of recovery in the early 
stages of this disease if the patient faithfully follows the 
physician's diet regulations, strictly limiting the use of 
sugars and starches. 

This disease sometimes comes from overeating, particu¬ 
larly from overeating sugars and starches. Thin people 
rarely contract the disease. Fat people should undergo a 
physical examination occasionally. The disease often “ runs 


110 


DIGESTION 



in a family,” that is, the susceptibility to it is inherited. 
If one or two members of a family show the symptoms, the 

others should be unusu¬ 


ally careful of their diet. 
They can usually avoid 
the disease by exercising 
sufficient care. 


What is the cause of 
diabetes? How may one 
suffering from diabetes re¬ 
cover? What can one do to 
avoid the disease? 


Figure 55. — Junction of Small and 
Large Intestines. 

1. How does the diameter of the small 
intestine compare with that of the large 
intestine, the colon ? 

2. If food should start to move back¬ 
ward from the colon into the small intes¬ 
tine, how would its movement be affected 
by the flaps of mucous membrane at the 
junction ? 

3. With what part of the large intes¬ 
tine does the appendix join ? 


Appendicitis. — Our 

primitive ancestors lived 
on a coarse herbaceous 
diet and needed a large 
intestinal space for its 
digestion. This they pos¬ 
sessed in the form of a 
sack-like appendage to 
the large intestine near 
its junction with the small 
intestine. As time went 
on they adopted a more 
and more concentrated 
diet, and needed less in¬ 
testinal space for its di¬ 
gestion. Therefore, the 
large sack-like branch of 
up till it now forms the 


the intestine gradually -shriveled 
useless appendix. 

This degenerate organ is a favorite place for pus-forming 
bacteria to grow, causing appendicitis. The disease does 
not come from swallowing grape seeds or any other small 
solids, but from bacterial growth. We do not know why 




APPENDICITIS 


111 


the disease attacks the people it does at the times it does, 
except as they may at those times chance to encounter the 
germs or be unusually susceptible. We do not know of 
any means of escaping the attacks except by removing the 
vulnerable and useless appendix. 

The treatment for an acute attack is generally a prompt 
amputation of the appendix. If the pus is allowed to in¬ 
crease until the sac 1 bursts and the pus scatters through 
the abdomen recovery is slow, incomplete, or even impos¬ 
sible. Therefore it is important, if one has pain in the 
lower abdomen accompanied by fever, to have the trouble 
diagnosed immediately. If it proves to be appendicitis, the 
doctor will probably operate at once. Early operations are 
so successful and recovery so quick and easy, that appendicitis 
is no longer dreaded as it once was. 

Explain the degeneration of the appendix. What causes ap¬ 
pendicitis ? Why do we make no special effort to avoid it ? What 
treatment is advised at the.very beginning of the attack? 


1 A sack is a bag or container used for holding articles, such as flour, 
candy, etc. Sac is a term confined to biology and means a small pouchlike 
organ. 



CHAPTER VII 
THE BLOOD CIRCULATION 


The brain may devise laws for the blood. 

— The Merchant of Venice. 


The Heart. — The pump whose muscle contractions send 
the blood to every part of the body is an organ which we 
abuse a great deal and which needs most intelligent care. 
To understand how to care for it and how to avoid abusing 
it we must study its structure and action. 

The ven'tricles of the heart with their thick muscular walls 
work like a pair of syringe bulbs. The muscular walls of 
the left ventricle are more than twice as thick as those of 
the right because the left ventricle pumps the blood all over 
the body, while the right sends it only to the lungs. 

When the walls contract the blood is forced out through the 
arteries. The au'ricles are short-time storage tanks which 
receive the blood from the veins while the ventricles are 
contracting and pass it on to the ventricles as soon as the 
latter relax. The sets of valves are thin, flexible, tough 
membranes which are moved by the blood stream washing 
against them. As the blood moves forward it pushes the 
lobes of the valve to the sides and goes between them. If 
the blood starts to flow backward it runs behind the edges 
of the valve and forces the flaps together like folding doors, 
blocking the opening and completely stopping the backward 
flow. 

What forces the blood out of the heart? What is the function 
of the auricles? Why are the ventricle walls thicker than the 
auricle walls? Describe the structure of the valves. What is 
their function? What makes them open? What makes them 
close ? 


112 




CARE OF THE HEART 


113 


Care of the Heart. — Since the walls of the ventricle are 
muscle they can be strengthened like any other muscle by 

to head 



The scarlet color represents blood just from the lungs, which carries much 
oxygen and little carbon dioxid. The dark shade represents blood which 
has just returned from the body where it gave up much of its oxygen and 
took on carbon dioxid. The valves are the white flaps in the upper parts 
of the ventricles and at the beginning of the pulmonary artery and the aorta. 

exercise, food, and rest. The exercise should be adapted 
to the strength of the heart, rather gentle at first, increas¬ 
ing in vigor as the strength becomes greater. Athletic 











114 


THE BLOOD CIRCULATION 


training is largely a matter of strengthening the heart, that 
it may send a sufficient quantity of blood to the brain and 
muscles to meet their great demands. Training for “ wind ” 
is really training the heart. The need of rest and food is 
recognized in training. The rule is “ early to bed,” no 
stimulants or narcotics, and the most wholesome food. 

Under such training the heart grows and increases its 
strength remarkably. In fact it may become so strong that 
in emergency it may contract with such force as to strain 
itself or injure a valve. Athletes’ hearts are often injured for 
life by excessive training and too great exertion, especially 
if the training stops suddenly. Athletes should have their 
hearts examined frequently and should slow up their pace 
if the heart shows any signs of being overworked. Foot¬ 
ball has been discarded in some high schools because some 
physical directors have thought that it puts too great a 
strain on the hearts of growing boys. 

Most of us do not exercise sufficiently to keep the heart 
in good condition. When a fifty-yard run to catch a car 
puts us out of breath and makes us feel faint we should 
understand that the heart needs training — regular exer¬ 
cise gradually increasing till it becomes vigorous. Of course 
this applies to a healthy person. If one has a weak heart 
he should exercise only according to the physician’s direc¬ 
tions. He may be able to strengthen his weak heart. 

All the narcotics are injurious to the heart. The effect 
of tobacco is so great on young people that the phrase “ to¬ 
bacco heart ” has been applied to the symptoms sometimes 
produced in young men by its use. Excessive use of alcohol 
produces a profound weakening of the heart; in some cases 
fibers of muscle waste away and fat forms in their place. 
Several germ diseases may injure the heart seriously, — an 
added reason for taking care to avoid them. 

How may the muscles in the walls of the heart be strengthened ? 
Why do people get “ out of wind ” by activity? How are the 


ARTERIES AND VEINS 


US 


hearts of athletes often injured? In what way do most of us fail 
to take care of our hearts ? If one has a weak heart what precaution 
should he use? How does tobacco affect the heart? How does 
alcohol in extreme cases injure the heart ? 



Valves 
in a Vein. 

They close when the 
blood starts to move 
backward. 


Arteries and Veins. — As the muscles 
which compose the walls of the ventricles 
contract with great 
force, sending the 
blood under high 
pressure rushing 
through the arter¬ 
ies, the arteries Figure 57. 
must be very strong 
to resist the blood 
pressure. Their 
walls are elastic and 
give at each impulse of the blood. 
When you put your finger over an ar¬ 
tery in the wrist or neck the pulse you 
feel is the stretching and tightening 
of the artery under the increased blood 
pressure. There is a pulse for every 
contraction of the ventricle. The 
blood is forced through the arteries 
with such a strong impulse that it 
can not back up. 

Its course through the minute cap¬ 
illaries slows it up so greatly that by 
the time the blood reaches the veins 
the push of the stream is very gentle. 
In fact the blood may easily be stopped 
2. where else is there in a prominent vein by outside pres* 
a double artery supply? sure . To prevent its being crowded 
back, there are small membranes, valves, which open in the 
direction of the blood flow. If the blood starts to back up, 


Figure 58. — Arteries of 
the Arm and Hand. 

1. If the radial artery 
should be destroyed how 
would the thumb be sup¬ 
plied with blood ? 












116 


THE BLOOD CIRCULATION 


the force of the backward flow flaps these valves across 
the blood tube and stops the passage temporarily. 

Both arteries and veins have cross-connecting tubes to 
join arteries with other arteries or veins with other veins, 
so that if one blood tube is obstructed, the blood can flow 
through the cross-connections to another and so continue 
on its way. 

Why must arteries have very strong, elastic walls? What is 
the pulse? How many beats of your pulse can you feel in a min¬ 
ute? How many pulse beats in a minute do you feel after vigorous 
exercise? Does your neighbor’s pulse beat just like yours? Press 
your finger firmly against the skin in many places on your head, 
neck, arms, and legs, and make a list of the places in which you feel 
the pulse. Where is the lowest pressure in the whole system of 
blood tubes? Why do veins have valves and arteries none? If 
a small artery is cut or obstructed how can the organ normally 
supplied by it get the blood it needs? Sketch a map of the veins 
of the back of the hand and indicate the cross-connecting vessels. 

Control of the Blood Supply. — When more blood is 
needed throughout the body for general increased activity 
it can be supplied by a more rapid beating of the heart. 
When more blood is needed in one organ only, the vessels 
leading to that organ enlarge to accommodate a greater 
blood flow. The muscles by which the diameter of a blood- 
tube is diminished or increased are kept in tone by the in¬ 
ternal adrenal secretion and are under the control of the 
autonomic nerve centers. Thus the blood supply to any 
organ is automatically regulated according to its needs. 

Alcohol plays havoc with the regulation of the blood sup¬ 
ply. Even a glass of wine has such an effect on the auto¬ 
nomic nerve centers as to send an increased blood supply 
to the skin when it is not needed there: the face is flushed. 
Men who use alcoholic liquor habitually in large quantity 
have the skin of the face overcharged with blood so much 
that the vessels of the nose and cheeks become permanently 
enlarged, giving the characteristic red nose of the toper. 


CONTROL OF THE BLOOD SUPPLY 


117 


Exposure to inclement weather also has the effect of 
calling the blood' to the skin, but this is a normal action. 
The blood is needed to keep the skin warm. In old people 
the small blood vessels of the skin often become stretched, 
making the red lines in the face, because the power of ad¬ 
justment is lost. 

The elasticity of the arteries is an exceedingly important 
property of their walls. They must stretch to let more 
blood through when more blood is needed. One reason 
why old people are unable to do the strenuous “ stunts ” 
in which young people excel is that their arteries do not 
stretch to accommodate the larger blood supply required 
in the greater activity. Our arteries become stiff as we 
grow old. As long as a man’s arteries remain elastic he re¬ 
tains his ability for vigorous activity. Stiff arteries are 
more likely to break under increased pressure than elastic 
vessels. A blood vessel breaking in the brain may cause 
apoplexy, followed often by sudden death. 

Alcohol is one of the worst things to take into the body, 
as it tends to stiffen the arteries. It makes one old before 
his time. The poisons of certain diseases and those absorbed 
from constipated bowels also are large factors in stiffening 
the arteries. If you would live to be “ ninety years young ” 
you must let alcohol alone, avoid infections, keep your intes¬ 
tines rid of refuse, and get plenty of fresh air and exercise. 

Why does your heart beat more rapidly when you run? By 
what means is an increased quantity of blood sent to your stomach 
when food is there to be digested ? Explain how the blood vessels 
can change their diameter. When your hands get cold what is 
done in your body automatically to warm them? Explain how a 
drink of alcoholic liquor interferes with the regulation of the blood 
supply. What people besides users of alcoholic liquors are likely 
to have red noses ? 

What ground is there for saying that a man is as old as his ar¬ 
teries? What makes the arteries in many men prematurely old? 
What danger is there in the hardening of arteries? What can we 
do to keep our arteries elastic? 


118 


THE BLOOD CIRCULATION 


The Blood. — The blood is a tissue, composed of cells 
and fluid intercellular substance. Like other tissues it is 
subject to injury and disease. A very common affection 
of the blood is ane'mia, a lack of sufficient red cells. When 
compared with a standard set of shades of red the anemic 
blood is noticeably paler than normal. One suffering from 
anemia has pale lips and is weak. The red blood cells are 
produced from cells in the red bone marrow and some other 
places. If the blood-producing tissues get too little food or 
the wrong kinds of food they make an insufficient number 
of red cells. Iron is the most characteristic element of the 
red cells, and so medicinal compounds or foods containing 
iron are given the anemic. Some of the iron-containing 
foods recommended, as spinach and carrots, are rich in 
vitamines also. Rest, fresh air, tonics, and adequate diet 
usually restore the blood to good condition. 

What is anemia? What function would the blood be unable 
to perform adequately in anemia ? Consequently how would 
the disease affect one’s power to do work? Where are red blood 
cells produced? What is the reason they are made in insufficient 
number at times? What can be done to restore the blood to nor¬ 
mal condition? 

Mosquitoes and Malaria. — An example of germs that 
choose the blood for their point of attack is the malaria 
microbe. Malaria is caused by a small animal germ which 
lives in the red cells of the blood. The germ grows in and 
feeds upon the red cell until it has destroyed it, and then 
divides into several germs. Each of these moves into a new 
red cell and in time destroys it. 

The name malaria, meaning “ bad air,” was given to the 
disease because it was believed that the night air rising from 
swamps or marshes caused the trouble. It is now known 
that night air has nothing more to do with the causing of 
any disease than day air, and that neither “ bad air,” in¬ 
fected food, nor impure drinking water causes malaria. 


MOSQUITOES AND MALARIA 


119 




The germs are communicated from one person to another 
only by the bite of the female of a certain kind of mos¬ 
quito, which flies by night and so 
made people suspicious of the night 
air. This kind of mosquito abounds 
in the tropics but is not abundant in 
cooler climates. Therefore malaria is 
a very common disease in many warm 
and moist regions, but is seldom found 
in cold countries. 

The mosquito must first suck the 
blood of someone who has malaria. 

A week or two afterward, some of the 
malaria germs have passed from the 
mosquito’s stomach into her salivary 
glands. If then she bites a person, she 
injects the germs down her bill into 
his skin and infects him with the dis¬ 
ease. Malaria is communicated in no Figure59.—The Malaria 
other way. If there were no mos- Mosquito. 

quitoes of the sort that convey the Thls flgure re P resents 
disease, malaria could not be com- adull % male) 0 , tha mos _ 
mumcated from one person to an- quit o Anopheles which 
other. If, on the other hand, all carries malaria germs, 
persons having the disease were kept The adult is magnified less 

carefully screened away from mos- than the other forms. Note 

i the breathing tubes of the 

quitoes until they were cured, mos- , . * 

^ . -iii • larva and of the P u P a at 

quitoes could not become infected and t h e surface of the water. 

therefore could not carry the disease. Why does oil on the wa- 

We know then exactly what to do ter kil1 the insect at its 
to combat the disease. We must, first, immature stages ? 
make a concerted effort to exterminate the mosquito, and 
second, prevent those mosquitoes that survive our war on 
them from getting and spreading malaria germs. 

Mosquito eggs are laid on the surface of stagnant water. 





120 


THE BLOOD CIRCULATION 


In warm weather these eggs soon hatch out into “ wigglers.” 
In a few days the wiggler undergoes certain changes, emerges 
as a full-grown mosquito, and dies away. After the mos¬ 
quitoes have taken wing from their breeding places it is 
too late to make effective war on them. The most far-reach¬ 
ing plan of extermination is to destroy their breeding places. 
All stagnant pools, puddles, and swampy places should be 
drained if possible. All tin cans should be buried or 
punched full of holes instead of being thrown out to collect 
rainwater for the breeding of mosquitoes. 

Where drainage is impracticable, other methods have to 
be employed. Spraying oil over the surface of stagnant 
water accomplishes the purpose. The wiggler spends most 
of its time just under the surface of the water, and wiggles 
down only when disturbed. It can not live more than a 
minute or two if it is unable to reach the surface to breathe. 
Oil or kerosene on the water cuts off the air supply from the 
wigglers. A pint of kerosene or crude oil poured into the 
catch basin of the sewer about twice a month and as fre¬ 
quent sprinklings of cheap oil on undrained marshes kill 
all eggs, suffocate the wigglers, and destroy all adult female 
mosquitoes that try to lay their eggs on the surface. 

Water tanks, rain barrels, and cisterns obviously can not 
be treated with kerosene. Screening such receptacles with 
16-mesh screen (16 wires to the inch) is the only solution. 
Where pools are used for watering of stock, oil can not be 
used either. In such cases the remedy lies in stocking the 
ponds with minnows or sunfish, which feed on the wigglers. 

The second thing to be done to prevent the spread of 
malaria is not only to keep all patients so carefully screened 
that no mosquitoes can get at them, but also to make sure 
that all malaria patients are cured. Although some cases 
of malaria are very persistent and defy the most skillful 
treatment, nearly all cases are quickly cured by a proper 
use of quinine. The drug should be administered, however, 


MOSQUITOES AND MALARIA 


121 


according to the directions of an experienced physician, 
since its misuse may seriously injure the body and be quite 
ineffective in curing the disease. 

By the two methods, making war on the mosquitoes and 
screening malarial patients from the insects until they are 
cured, malaria has in 
places (notably in the 
Panama Canal Zone) been 
reduced to a point of 
minor consideration. In¬ 
dividuals can do little 
to protect themselves. 

Eradicating the causes of 
malaria is the work of 
states, or better still of 
the Federal Government. 

It is not too much to hope 
that it can be driven 
completely out of our 
country if we make a 
concerted and adequate 
effort. Malaria is such 
a persistent disease, so 
widespread in sections 
where it exists at all, and 
so destructive of the 
vitality of the people that 
it would be economy to 
spend even several times 
as much as would really 
have to be spent to be 
rid of the malady. 



Figure 60. — Major-General William 
C. Gorgas. 

He was in charge of the sanitary work 
at Panama. The successful outcome of 
his campaign against yellow fever and 
malaria made possible the construction of 
the great water way. 


Where does the malaria germ live? How does it affect the 
oxygen-carrying power of the blood? Tell the story of how the 
germs pass from one person to another. In what two ways should 



122 


THE BLOOD CIRCULATION 


we combat malaria? Give the life history of the mosquito. In 
what ways can war be made on mosquitoes? 

Why is a malaria campaign a work for the government rather 
than for a private individual? What drug is a specific cure for 
malaria? Where has the malaria campaign been wonderfully 
successful ? 

Yellow Fever. — The discovery of the fact that the germs 
of yellow fever are carried by a mosquito and the devising 
of ways of ridding the country of the disease is one of the 
wonder tales of science and contains narratives of heroic 
sacrifice. 

In 1898 the United States drove Spain out of Cuba and 
took charge of that devastated land while it was recovering 
from the ravages of war and was organizing its own govern¬ 
ment. One of the great problems was what to do about 
yellow fever, which had made Havana one of the plague 
spots of the Western Hemisphere. Dr. Walter Reed, a 
surgeon of the U. S. Army, was put in charge of a corps of 
scientists to study the problem. 

Doctors had expressed the opinion that the disease was 
communicated by the bite of a mosquito. By a careful 
series of experiments in 1900, in which men voluntarily ex¬ 
posed themselves to the disease, the fact was proved that 
the unknown germ of yellow fever is communicated by a 
certain kind of mosquito, called Stegomy'ia, different from 
the malarial mosquito. Those who voluntarily slept in the 
same room with yellow fever patients, but carefully screened 
away from mosquitoes, did not acquire the disease; while 
those who were kept carefully away from the yellow fever 
patients but submitted to the bite of mosquitoes that had 
previously bitten the patients, were stricken with the dis¬ 
ease. One of the heroic commission, Dr. Lazear, lost his 
life. 

When the manner of transmission of the disease was es¬ 
tablished, the way was clear for a campaign to exterminate 


YELLOW FEVER 


123 


the disease. The sick were gathered into hospitals and 
kept behind mosquito bars. A campaign of extermination 
against mosquitoes was carried on and their breeding places 
were wiped out. In the end Havana became one of the 
healthiest cities in the Western Hemisphere. 

The French had to give up their attempts to construct 
the Panama Canal in 1899, largely because of the two 
scourges, malaria and yellow fever. Col. Burau-Varilla, 
the French engineer in charge of this undertaking, shared 
the superstition of the time, which was very common in 
France, that night air is very injurious. It struck him that 
if the night air could be excluded from the sleeping quarters 
of the workmen, yellow fever might be checked. Since all 
of the windows of the Panama houses were simply latticed, 
he ordered that glass windows be put in all the sleeping 
quarters and that these be kept tightly closed at night. The 
number of yellow fever cases decreased after this, and shut¬ 
ting out the night air was believed to have resulted in the 
improvement. Since we have learned that a night-flying 
mosquito carries the germs of the disease, we understand 
how shutting the windows would limit the infection. Mos¬ 
quito screens would have been better than glass. 

A generation ago yellow fever was the terror of our Gulf 
Coast (the yellow fever mosquito does not come much 
farther north than Memphis) and of all tropical America. 
No way was known to stay its ravages. Now it has been 
nearly wiped out of North America, and persists in only a 
few localities of South America. What has been done to 
eradicate this dread disease shows what could be done to 
rid the country of malaria if the people could be aroused to 
concerted action. 

How was the method discovered by which yellow fever is com¬ 
municated? What methods of rooting out the disease have been 
employed? Why did the United States succeed in building the 
Panama Canal after the French failed? How do we now explain 


124 


THE BLOOD CIRCULATION 


the decrease of yellow fever among the French in Panama by the 
shutting out of the night air? To what extent have the Americas 
been freed from the yellow fever plague ? 

Blood Fakers.—The blood seems to be a favorite sub¬ 
ject for charlatans and superstitious people. If one has 
pimples on his face or a rash on his skin, if he is weak and 
listless, the faker’s explanation of these and a score of other 
ills is that his blood is out of order and the “ patient ” should 
take some advertised nostrum to restore it.. “ Blood out 
of order ” is a phrase used to cover up ignorance. It has 
no clear meaning to those who use it, and brings no under¬ 
standing to those who hear it. It harmonizes with the mis¬ 
leading advertisements of quack remedies — blood “puri¬ 
fiers,” “ strengthened,” and “ tonics,” all offspring of 
superstition and fraud. 

There are definite ailments of the blood which are under¬ 
stood and distinctively named by scientific men. These are 
treated successfully by skilled physicians, who employ means 
adapted to the nature of the disease. Only the skilled 
physician should be trusted to prescribe treatment for such 
a delicate structure as the body. To trust to a faker or 
to accept advice of an ignorant gossip is as foolish as it would 
be to entrust the repairing of a watch to a village black¬ 
smith. 


CHAPTER VIII 

AIR AND THE BREATHING ORGANS 


There are three wicJcs, you Jcnow, to the lamp of a man’s life : 
brain, blood, and breath. Press the brain a little, its light goes out, 
followed by both the others. Stop the heart a minute, and out go all 
three of the wicks. Choke the air out of the lungs, and presently the 
fluid ceases to supply the other centers of flame, and all is soon 
stagnation, cold, and darkness• 

— Oliver Wendell Holmes. 


Though the process of 
getting oxygen into the 
body and carbon dioxid 
out is comparatively sim¬ 
ple, the apparatus for ac¬ 
complishing* it is a vul¬ 
nerable point of attack 
for disease germs and 
therefore requires close 
study and great care. 

Sweeping the Passages 
Clear. — The mucous 
membrane which lines 
the air passages secretes 
a sticky fluid, mu'cus , 
which, in the case of a 
cold, bronchitis, or other 
disease of the respiratory 
organs, becomes profuse 
and would stop up the 
passages. Therefore it 
must be expelled. Since, unlike the digestive tract, the air 
passages are closed at the end, the material to be expelled 

125 



Figure 61. — A Section of the Head 
and Throat. 


In the larynx may be seen the right vocal 
cord, the lower margin of the pocket-like 
slit. The cavity in the bone of the brow 
is the frontal sinus, which communicates 
by a little tube with the nose cavity, sim¬ 
ilar to the sinuses in Figure 63. 






126 AIR AND THE BREATHING ORGANS 


must be brought to the nose or mouth. To accomplish 
this the mucous membrane which lines the trachea and 
bronchial tubes bears on its surface minute threads of proto¬ 
plasm like the nap on velvet, called cilia, which are in con¬ 
stant motion, bending and straightening much like a rapid 
scratching movement of the fingers. 

The motion of the cilia drives the 
mucus in a slow current up the bronchial 
tubes and trachea to the border of the 
ciliated surface in the larynx. Here it 
sometimes accumulates until its quantity 
is sufficient to stimulate a cough which 
throws it out. The dust and germs of the 
air inhaled, striking against the sides of 
the crooked passage on the way to the 
air sacs, are caught in the sticky mucus 
and carried out with it. Thus the air 
passages are swept free frpm what in 
time would accumulate and clog them. 
Unfortunately the process is not per- 
trachea and bronchial fect * Sometimes bacteria get into the 
tubes bear cilia to mucous membrane and multiply, produc- 
sweep the surface of ing bronchi'tis. Or they may be carried 
the membrane. by tbe a j r current into the air sacs where 

there are no cilia and where they may cause a great deal of 
trouble if they are not killed by the white blood cells, or 
otherwise removed. In the back upper part of the nose 
also (the naso-pharynx) there is a patch of cilia which 
sweep the mucus with the dust and germs down into the 
nose where it can easily be blown out. 

Why does the respiratory apparatus need sweeping while the 
digestive tract does not? What and where are cilia? Describe 
their movement. What work do they do? For how long after 
you have been in a dusty atmosphere (sweeping a room) can you 
notice the black stain in the mucus you cough up ? 



The mucous mem¬ 
brane cells of the 





NOSE BREATHING 


127 


Nasal Passages 


Nose Breathing. — Breathing through the nose is better 
than breathing through the mouth for several reasons. The 
nose passage is more crooked and the walls are folded in 
from the sides so as to make a large lining surface. This 
lining is kept moist by an abundant secretion and warm by 
a rich supply of blood ves¬ 
sels. As the air goes 
through the nose, the 
warm moist lining catches 
a large number of dust 
particles and germs. It 
also warms the air and 
gives up some moisture 
to it. Thus when air 
enters the lungs through 
the nose it is to a great 
extent freed from impuri¬ 
ties; it is so moist that 
it will not dry up the del¬ 
icate lining of the air sacs; 
and it is nearly the tern- Sinuses are cavities in the upper jaw and 



Figure 63. — Air Cavities of the Head. 

This is a cross section through the base 
of the nose and adjoining parts. The 


perature of the body. 

Some of us breathe 
through the mouth be¬ 
cause we have unwittingly 
fallen into the bad habit; 
and we can, if we give 
the 


in the bones at the base of the nose. 

1. Find the small openings by which 
the sinuses connect with the nasal pas¬ 
sages. 

2. What benefit can there be in the 
side walls projecting as thin strips into 
the nasal passages ? 

matter attention, establish a habit of nose breath¬ 
ing. Others breathe through the mouth because the nose 
is stopped up. A common obstruction to natural breath¬ 
ing in children is the growth of ad'enoids, masses of soft 
tissue near the auditory tube. (See Figure 61 .) Almost any 
nasal obstruction can easily be removed by a surgeon and 
should not be allowed to remain till it has done injury. Al¬ 
though adenoids sometimes seem to make no appreciable 




128 AIR AND THE BREATHING ORGANS 

difference in the health, they commonly have a harmful 
effect quite out of proportion to what one would expect 
from a simple obstruction to nose breathing. 


Figure 64. — Before and After Removal of Adenoids. 

The first picture shows a four-year-old boy whose breathing is obstructed 
by adenoids. The second picture shows the same boy seven months after 
the adenoids were removed. 

Point out the particulars in which the appearance of the boy is improved. 

Pupils having adenoids are sometimes below grade in school 
and seem unable to do their work. They often brighten up to 
a surprising degree after their adenoids have been removed. 










TAKING COLD 


129 


u 




Adenoids and mouth breathing often result in a serious 
narrowing of the upper jaw, which leaves insufficient room 
for the teeth, with consequent malformation of these im¬ 
portant organs. Sometimes adenoids in little children dis¬ 
appear in a short time without operation, but it is always 
wise to take a child having adenoids to the doctor, lest the 
obstruction neglected should result in serious harm. 

How is the nose adapted to catch the dust of the inhaled air? 
How does it affect the temperature, cleanliness, and moisture of 
the air coming in ? Give two reasons why we breathe through the 
mouth instead of through the nose. What are adenoids? What 
should one do if he has either of these obstructions to breathing? 
Discuss the importance of having adenoids removed. 

“ Taking Cold.” —Wet feet and drafts, uncomfortable 
and sometimes harmful as they are, can not alone produce 
a cold. A common cold is caused by germs which lodge in 
the mucous membrane of the nose and throat. The wet 
feet and draft may detract somewhat from our vigor and so 
make us more susceptible to the germs, but without the 
microbes there would be no cold. A current of cold air on 
the skin chills it, sends the blood back to the interior, and 
causes a congestion of some of the organs there, notably the 
mucous membrane. The mucous membrane in the nose 
swells with this increase of blood until it sometimes fills 
the nasal cavity so as to stop the passage of air. From the 
increased blood supply an increased quantity of mucus is 
secreted, in which the bacteria multiply. When this con¬ 
dition is temporary we say we have a “ cold.” When it 
becomes chronic we call it catarrh. 

To prevent a “ cold ” our chief concern should be pure 
air. No matter if the air blows in directly from out doors 
and is colder than we like; it is better for us than the warm 
air contaminated with the germs from our coughing and 
sneezing neighbors. When germs get caught on our mucous 
membrane it is often possible to wash them out before they 


130 


AIR AND THE BREATHING ORGANS 


have time to get a deep lodgment. To do this fill a drink¬ 
ing glass with water (clear or a little salty), put the nose 
into it and tip it up gently as if you were going to drink. 
Let the water run into the nose and out the mouth. It 
will remove a large number of germs and make an attack 
of “ cold ” less likely. 

If the germs have already gained a lodgment, vigorous 
treatment will often remove or kill them and cure the 
“ cold ” in short order. Some antiseptic which does not 
injure the mucous membrane, as ar'gyrol, may be introduced 
with a dropper into the nostrils. A spray should be used 
under a physician’s directions. To relieve the congestion 
of the mucous membrane a hot bath, and a sweat in a warm 
bed are advisable. A copious drink of water or hot lemon¬ 
ade and a laxative also are beneficial. To do the most good 
the treatment should be prompt. 

To considerable extent the body can be toned up to re¬ 
sist the germs of a cold. Cool baths, cold sponging of the 
neck and chest, sleeping out of doors, studying or working 
in the fresh air are all helpful, but must not be relied on as 
sure preventives. We must also take pains to avoid the 
air contaminated by those who are coughing or sneezing 
with the disease. 

What is the cause of a cold? What unhygienic conditions in¬ 
crease our susceptibility to the disease? What is the condition 
of the mucous membrane when we have a cold ? What is catarrh ? 

Describe two precautions we can take to avoid taking cold. 

What can we do to cure a cold? 

Tonsils. — The tonsils, a pair of glands situated in the 
lower part of the pharynx and visible when the mouth is 
wide open, are not known to do any useful work, but they 
are the seat of much trouble. They have many little gland 
pits in which bacteria find lodgment and grow, producing 
pus and sometimes considerable swelling and great tender¬ 
ness — tonsilli'tis or quinsy sore throat. 


SINUSES 


131 


One of the worst of the sore throat germs is called strep¬ 
tococcus. It causes fever and severe illness, and often re¬ 
sults in complications, such as inflammation of the heart 
and of joints. Diphtheria commonly starts on the tonsils 
and spreads more or less over the mucous membrane of the 
throat. The toxins absorbed from bacteria in the tonsils 
are carried throughout the body and may result in a general 
ill feeling, or in acute pains in nerves and joints far from the 
point of infection, or in serious, sometimes fatal, poisoning 
of the brain cells. Surgeons recommend the excision of 
tonsils which are troublesome. This simple operation often 
cures the patient of a number of ills and renders him less 
susceptible to “ cold,” sore throat, or other infections of the 
respiratory organs. 

What are the tonsils? What feature of their structure renders 
them especially susceptible to bacterial invasion? What is ton¬ 
sillitis ? Germs of what dreaded disease usually start their growth 
on the tonsils? What extensive effects may come from germs in 
the tonsils? What can be done to stop tonsil infections? 

Si'nuses. — There are several little sac-like branches 
from the nose and naso-pharynx which are not called to our 
attention unless they are infected with pus germs. If they 
do become infected they may cause persistent annoyance or 
bad headache and (like an abscess on a tooth or germs in 
the tonsils) extend their baneful effects to the joints of the 
limbs (arthri'tis). One pair of these cavities lies in the up¬ 
per jaw bone, another in the bone under the eyebrow. (See 
Figure 63.) In little cavities in the bone beneath the brain 
are other sinuses. From the upper pharynx a tube runs to 
a chamber in each ear. All these cavities are more or less 
ciliated and so able to sweep out mucus and germs. But 
they can not perfectly protect themselves. They have small 
openings through which intruders come with difficulty, but 
sometimes the germs of a bad “ cold ” crowd into the sinus 
and hold possession of the trench, notwithstanding the at- 


132 


AIR AND THE BREATHING ORGANS 



tack of the white blood cells, until the surgeon opens the* 
cavity and cleans them out. 

Give the locations of the sinuses which open out from the nose 
and naso-pharynx. Explain how these cavities may become trou¬ 
blesome or even seriously impair the health. What means of self¬ 
protection have they? What does the surgeon do to remedy the 
disease ? What serious harm can come from a cold ? 


Figure 65. — “Hold It So.” 

There is a most efficient way of handling a broom. This health brigade 
of street sweepers is learning from an instructor the best way of doing the 
work. Street dirt breathed or blown into the eyes is often a source of irri¬ 
tation or worse. To be perfectly sanitary a city must keep its streets clean. 

Germs in the Air. — Of the considerable list of diseases 
whose infection comes by way of the air passages — “ cold/’ 
tonsillitis, sinus suppuration, influenza or grippe, whooping 
cough, scarlet fever, measles, diphtheria, tuberculosis, pneu¬ 
monia, pleurisy, infantile paralysis, and probably a number 
of others — the germs are sometimes borne in the air and 
sometimes on the fingers or other objects which enter the 




GERMS IN THE AIR 


133 



mouth. It behooves us to keep the air as free as possible 
from the germs of all these diseases. Fortunately the germs 
of disease do not live long in the air. They are killed by 
the sunshine. They settle with the dust. So the air, ex¬ 
cept in the immediate presence of the sick, is free from these 
microbes. 


Figure 66.— Air Good to Breathe. 

This picture represents a scene in the Forest Preserves of Cook County, 
Chicago’s outer belt of parks, a place free from dust and germs where the 
respiratory organs can function at their best. 

The sick do not give off the germs in ordinary exhala- 1 
tions, only in forceful expulsions of the breath, — speaking 
coughing, sneezing. A cough or a sneeze throws out germs 
several feet, and the currents in the air soon distribute them 
through the room. Sweeping stirs up those that have set¬ 
tled on the floor. It is best not to come unnecessarily into 
the room where there is a sick person contaminating the 
air with disease germs. 

Our individual efforts to keep ourselves away from in¬ 
fectious disease must be supplemented by the government 



134 


AIR AND THE BREATHING ORGANS 


provisions for sanitation. Hence such ordinances as those 
against spitting on the floors and sidewalks. People suffer¬ 
ing from most of the air-borne diseases can be quarantined. 
But so many of us have “ cold ” and tuberculosis, and yet 
are able to get around and attend to our work, that it is 
impracticable to quarantine every case. It is the duty of 
everyone, when he is sick, to limit as much as possible the 
spread of germs. An open handkerchief held to the mouth 
and nose during a cough or sneeze intercepts many of the 
germs. Careless spitting is very reprehensible and may 
bring most serious consequences. A person having an in¬ 
fection should expectorate into a handkerchief that can be 
disinfected or into paper or cloth that may be burned. 

Name several diseases whose germs enter the body through the 
air passage. How otherwise than in the air inhaled can they get in ? 
How is the air naturally freed from germs ? How do the sick scat¬ 
ter their germs into the air? What can well people do to avoid 
exposure to the germs? What can the government do to check 
the spread of infections? What diseases is it practically impos¬ 
sible to quarantine thoroughly? What can those afflicted with 
colds or tuberculosis do to prevent the spread of infection? Why is 
spitting on the floor and the sidewalk forbidden ? Why is a polished 
floor with rugs more sanitary than a nailed down carpet? Why 
should a child with a severe cold stay at home from school? 

Other Dangers in the Air. — Dust even if not infected by 
germs, is harmful to the lungs. When there is much 
dust in the air some of it is sure to penetrate to the air sacs 
at the ends of the bronchial tubes. It irritates the mem¬ 
branes and makes them more susceptible to germ attacks. 
Coal miners’ lungs are black with the dust they inhale. 
This makes them susceptible to tuberculosis and pneumonia. 
If men grinding tools and cutting stone are not well protected 
they inhale so much gritty, sharp-angled dust as to result 
in their early death. The fine lint in cloth mills injures the 
lungs so that many mill hands have tuberculosis. The 
fumes of some smelters are so poisonous as to destroy the 


OTHER DANGERS IN THE AIR 135 

vegetation in the neighborhood. They can not be whole¬ 
some for the men working or living near. 

Factories in which gritty dust comes from the machines, 
lint from the looms, or poisonous fumes from fires or retorts 
should have a suction ventilating system in which the air 



Figure 67. — Conserving the Workman’s Health. 


This machine for sandpapering pieces of board would fill the air with dust 
if it were not for the ventilator tubes which suck up the dust and leave the 
air fit to breathe. 

is drawn from the retort or machine into the flue and never 
has a chance to get back to the workman. Many states 
provide by law for such sanitary devices. 

Lead compounds are poisonous. Painters, printers, and 
storage battery makers often are poisoned by getting lead 
compounds into the mouth. If the dry powder gets into 
the air, as in scraping off old paint, there is great danger of 
absorbing so much in the lungs as to cause severe illness. 






136 


AIR AND THE BREATHING ORGANS 


The pollen dust from flowers is poisonous to some people. 
When flowers that have a fine, light pollen are abundant in 
midsummer and early fall there is so much pollen in the air 
that susceptible people breathing it get hay fever, an irri¬ 
tation of the mucous membrane with profuse secretion which 

causes sneezing. Such 
people often spend the 
critical months in locali¬ 
ties where the air is free 
from the obnoxious pollen. 

Over manufacturing 
cities there is usually a 
cloud of dust, smoke from 
the chimneys and fur¬ 
naces. All must breathe 
it in. The cilia sweep it 
out of the bronchial tubes, 
the trachea and the naso¬ 
pharynx continuously, 
but there is always more 
to follow. City officials 
make some effort to keep the air clear for us. They hale 
into court and fine owners of chimneys which smoke to 
an unusual degree. 

Smoke is unburned fuel. To burn it is good economy. 
If smoke consumers are installed in furnaces they send the 
air out of the smokestack fairly clear. But something more 
radical will be necessary to render the air of cities as pure 
as it ought to be for our breathing. New York City is kept 
much cleaner than most cities by its ordinance against the 
burning of soft coal. In the West the common use of fuel 
oil makes for cleaner cities. Electrification of railways 
within the limits of large cities and the use of electric power 
and water power to run factories and heat homes will eventu¬ 
ally make our cities more attractive and sanitary. 



These grains, very much magnified, 
from several different plants, illustrate 
what forms the dust which causes hay 
fever. 



WHY VENTILATE? 


137 


In what way does dust injure the lungs? What kinds of dust 
are especially harmful ? What occupations are dangerous to health 
on account of their dust? How can workers be protected against 
grit and fumes in the air? What can be done if a manufacturer 
is disinclined to install safety ventilating devices? What danger 
do painters encounter in their work? How is hay fever caused? 
To what sort of place should a sufferer from hay fever go to seek 
relief? What is the duty of the city government with reference 
to the atmosphere? What does it do in an imperfect way to ful¬ 
fill this duty? What policies or devices would be more nearly 
adequate to the solution of the pure air problem for cities ? 



Figure 69.— The Smoke Nuisance. 


In both these views smoke is coming from the chimney of a tall building. 
In one the smoke is reduced to a reasonable minimum ; in the other the 
smoke is an intolerable nuisance, a menace to the health of the community, 
and renders the owner of the building liable to a fine. 

Why Ventilate ? — We all know that we feel better when 
we have plenty of pure air than when we are shut up in a 
close room. We only partly understand the reason. About 
one fifth (21 %) of the air is oxygen. Our red blood cells 
can carry away from the lungs only their definite load of 
oxygen. If there is more oxygen in the air than is necessary 
to load up the red cells the superfluous oxygen does no good. 
The exhaled air contains about sixteen per cent oxygen. 
The atmosphere of even a very close room rarely falls to 










138 


AIR AND THE BREATHING ORGANS 


that figure. For healthy lungs we rarely find an atmosphere 
deficient in oxygen. 

Three or four hundredths of one per cent (.03%) of the 
air is carbon dioxid. Our exhaled breath contains about four 
per cent carbon dioxid. If there were many times as much 

carbon dioxid in the air 
as there is — even if there 
were twice as much as in 
the breath — it would do 
us no harm. We do not 
suffer from too much car¬ 
bon dioxid in the air. 

Why, then, do we feel 
uncomfortable in a close 
room? Part of the an¬ 
swer is that the air gets 
too warm and too moist 
and the skin does not cool 
off as it should. But if 
an electric fan is set going 
the stale air feels comfort¬ 
able. One coming into a 
close room smells the stale 
air. That is distressing 

The columns that have been cleaned - or a while, but the nose 
help us to appreciate how very dirty the SOOn becomes accustomed 
city smoke can make a building. Such to the smell and ceases to 
sooty air is very bad for our lungs. register any sensation of 
it. In winter the house air is so dry from the heat that it is 
irritating to the mucous membrane of the nose. Close air is 
more often dusty than fresh air, and especially harmful in 
the germs it carries. We suspect that there are other rea¬ 
sons why stale air is unsanitary, but we do not know. 

What we do know, even though we may not be able to give 
the exact reasons for it, is that the evil effects of breathing air 



Figure 70. — Smoke-begrimed. 




HOW VENTILATE? 


139 


over and over again can hardly be exaggerated. The heart 
slows down, and the body does not eliminate wastes prop¬ 
erly. Dullness, feverishness, headaches, sensitiveness to 
cold follow. In such condition the body offers favorable 
breeding ground for the germs of “ colds,” catarrh, tuber¬ 
culosis, etc. 

What fraction of the air is oxygen? What part is carbon di- 
oxid? How many times as much carbon dioxid is in the breath 
as in the air? What per cent of its oxygen does the air give up to 
the body? Why would an increase in the per cent of oxygen in 
the air not help the breathing of a healthy lung? Is the chief aim 
of ventilation to get oxygen into the room and carbon dioxid out? 
What changes in the air of a room make it uncomfortable? What 
in close air does us most harm ? What are the practical reasons for 
ventilating ? 

How Ventilate ? — In summer we are not concerned with 
ventilation. The windows are wide open and the air blows 
through. The nearer we can approach this ideal at other 
seasons the better. Of course in very cold weather we could 
not warm the large volume of air that would circulate 
through the room if it were wide open to the outside. There¬ 
fore we must have just a little opening that will let in only 
as much air as we can warm. In a house where there are 
only a few people the air usually changes sufficiently through 
the cracks of the doors and windows, especially if the 
weather is very cold or windy. If a large family crowds 
into a small room and the cracks are tight a window must 
be opened, or the air will become very stale. A fireplace is 
a sufficient ventilator in a living room. 

The easiest room to ventilate is the bedroom, because 
the temperature is permitted to go down. The ideal sleep¬ 
ing place is an open porch the year round, with plenty of 
bed clothes in the winter so as to keep warm. No benefit 
comes from getting cold. In the bedroom the window must 
be open wide even in winter, the bedroom door shut to keep 


140 


AIR AND THE BREATHING ORGANS 


the house from getting cold, and the sleeper kept comfort¬ 
able by abundant covering over all but the nose. 

Schoolhouses in large cities are usually pretty well ven¬ 
tilated, because provision is made for this in the heating 
plans. In smaller places, however, there is often no thought 
given to ventilation in the construction of the building. If 
the joints are tight, the rooms get very close in cold weather. 

The windows should always be open, 
much or little depending on the tempera¬ 
ture and the direction of the wind. If 
the window is down a little at the top and 
up at the bottom the cold air will rush 
in below and push the warm air out 
above. To prevent the incoming cold 
current from striking the pupils near by, 
a board or piece of plate glass as long as 
the width of the window and about a 
foot wide should rest one edge on the 
Figure 71. — Window window sill and slant inward, so as to 
direct the incoming air up over the heads 
What is the use of of the pupils. 

the slanting board or Most modern school buildings are 
plate glass on the sill ? , , , , r . 

heated and ventilated by masses of air 
which fans drive from the heating coils through large 
pipes to each room. The foul air is taken out by a pipe 
from the room to a main ventilator. The heat supply is 
regulated so as to keep the temperature of the room be¬ 
tween sixty-five and seventy degrees. The quantity of 
air is sufficient to give each pupil a thousand cubic feet, 
more or less, each hour. The air supply for factories, 
theaters, and public buildings is regulated by law, that is, 
only so many people may be admitted as can be provided 
with sufficient room and air. The number is sometimes 
regulated according to the square feet of floor space and 
sometimes by the cubic feet of the room. 







AIR MOISTENERS 


141 


What ventilation is ideal? How are homes sometimes venti¬ 
lated without our thought or attention? How should we open 
a window to ventilate a room? Why is a bedroom easy to venti¬ 
late? What is the best sleeping place? 

If the wind is from the west on which side of a schoolroom 
would you open windows to ventilate in cold weather? Should 
the windows be open wider in windy, or in still weather? Make 
a diagram to show the air currents of a room with a window open 
at top and bottom. How can the incoming cold current be kept 
from blowing directly on the pupils near? Explain how a modern 
large school building is heated and ventilated. Is the incoming 
pipe near the floor, or the ceiling? What is the situation of the 
outgoing pipe? Why there? Describe the method of ventilat¬ 
ing your schoolroom. If you have any good ventilating system 
in your home describe it. How do our laws protect people in fac¬ 
tories and public buildings in their air supply ? 

Air Moisteners. — One of the most difficult problems 
connected with the heating and ventilating of houses in very 
cold weather is that of keeping the air moist. The dryness 
produced by heating the cold air not only loosens the joints 
of the furniture but also irritates the mucous membrane 
of the nose and throat and renders it very susceptible to 
“ colds.” Many families suffer all winter from sore throat 
as they would not do if the air in the home were sufficiently 
moistened. 

The air of a house heated by stoves can easily be mois¬ 
tened by keeping basins of water on the stoves all the time. 
If the house is heated by a hot air furnace the water pan 
must be above the furnace where the water will be kept hot 
and evaporate rapidly. A pan at the side of the furnace 
evaporating a quart or two of water a day is useless. 

The air of a steam heated apartment can easily be kept 
moist by opening a valve in the radiator. There are several 
appliances on the market which can be attached to the 
radiator valve to regulate the escape of steam and to render 
it noiseless. In schoolhouses and other large buildings 
warmed by air passing over large steam coils, a jet of steam 


142 


AIR AND THE BREATHING ORGANS 


played into the air just after it passes the heating coils will 
render the air of the whole building comfortable and healthful. 

With hot water heat the problem is more difficult. The 

hang behind the radiator, 
with wicks from which the 
water evaporates, are prac¬ 
tically worthless. At best 
they give off no more wa¬ 
ter than a person exhales 
in breathing. The wick 
soon becomes clogged with 
the minerals contained in 
the water and ceases to 
function. To moisten the 
air of a common house 
adequately, ten to twenty 
gallons of water a day 
must be evaporated. To 
do this many shallow pans 
above a hot radiator would 
barely suffice. A fine, 
mist-like spray thrown in 
front of an electric fan 
has been found satisfactory. Any apparatus not having an 
automatic water feed is likely to be neglected and to prove 
inadequate. 

What harm is done by the very dry air so common in warm 
houses in winter? How can the air in houses heated by stoves be 
kept moist? What care should be taken to produce sufficient 
moisture in a hot air furnace? How can rooms heated by steam 
be easily moistened ? How much water must be evaporated daily 
to moisten adequately the air of a dwelling house? How can this 
be done where the rooms are warmed by hot water radiators ? 

Fresh-air Schools. — During the last few years schools 
have been established in which anemic and tuberculous 


various contraptions designed to 



Figure 72. — A Humidifier. 


This neat apparatus, driven by an elec¬ 
tric current from an ordinary light socket, 
will add sufficient moisture to the air of 
a warm house to make it comfortable 
and healthful even in zero weather. It 
is made by Dr. P. A. Bryce, Ottawa, 
Canada. 





FRESH-AIR SCHOOLS 143 

children are kept out doors for their school work the year 
round. They have a shelter to keep off the rain and snow, 
but no closed windows, and scarcely any walls. In winter 
the children are clothed in a fashion somewhat like eskimos 
to keep them warm. They are perfectly comfortable, and 
gain greatly in health. 


By courtesy of the Elizabeth McCormick Memorial, Chicago. 

Figure 73. — Fresh-air School. 

The windows of this schoolroom are kept open every day, even in winter. 
The children enjoy the cold air and study the better under its invigorating 
influence. 

Fresh-air rooms for children in good health have also been 
tried in many schools. Their temperature in winter usually 
lies between fifty and sixty degrees, sometimes lower. The 
windows are kept open even in cold weather. Frames 
covered with cheesecloth are sometimes put in the windows, 
through which the air filters gently without a strong draft. 
Children sitting all day in these cool rooms get accustomed 
to the temperature and do not feel uncomfortable even 








144 


AIR AND THE BREATHING ORGANS 


though their clothing is scarcely warmer than that of the 
children in the warm rooms. The effect of the fresh air is 
remarkable on both the health and the work of the pupils. 

They seldom take cold, are rarely out for 
illness, learn their lessons more easily 
and enjoy school more. 

Live in the fresh air all you can, day 
and night. Don’t be too much afraid of 
drafts. Moving fresh air is good for you. 
It is the close, infected air that gives 
you a cold. Make a hobby of opening 
windows and don’t be ashamed of being 
a fresh-air fiend. But take the precau¬ 
tion to keep warm and don’t annoy oth¬ 
ers by making them unwilling sharers 
in your pure air. 


For what kind of children were open-air 
schools first established? How are the chil¬ 
dren kept comfortable in cold weather? 
What effects does this treatment have on 
them? How are fresh-air rooms for children 
in good health arranged? What is their 
effect on the pupils? Why should you be a 
fresh-air fiend? 



Figure 74. — Breath¬ 
ing Movements. 

The entire lines rep¬ 
resent the position after 

exhalation, the dotted Healthful Breathing. — When we lie 
lines the position after 

inhaiation. The dia- asleep we bre ^ the automatically, natu- 
phragm, the partition ^ally, perfectly except when the mouth 
between the chest and drops open and we snore. When we 
the abdomen, moves are awake we frequently do things to 

inhalation ? ireCtl ° n i nter ^ ere perfect breathing. Fig¬ 

ure 74 will help us to understand the 
movements of breathing. Go over it as you read each sen¬ 
tence of the description. In inhalation the chest is made 
larger that the air may push in. This enlarging is done by 
the upward and forward movement of the front of the chest 






HEALTHFUL BREATHING 


145 


and by the downward movement of the diaphragm. The dia¬ 
phragm is a sheet of muscle fastened to the body wall around 
its margin and arching up in the middle. By its own contrac¬ 
tion it pulls itself down, pushing out the walls of the abdomen. 

To produce exhalation the walls of the abdomen contract, 
pushing the organs within up against the diaphragm, and 
arching that organ up into the chest to drive out the air. 
At the same time the sides and front of the chest spring 
back and are pulled down to diminish the chest diameter. 
The part of this apparatus that has the freest play is the 
diaphragm. Its movement is also best under control; 
therefore in speaking and singing, in which the breathing 
must be well controlled, the diaphragmatic movement is 
most used. Tight clothing around the waist and a cramped 
position in sitting interfere with this free movement, and 
force us to use the upper chest walls instead. Some of us 
get so accustomed in voluntary breathing to using the rib 
muscles that we are unable properly to employ and control 
the diaphragm and abdominal muscles — to our great detri¬ 
ment in speaking and singing. 

Diaphragmatic breathing is of great value to the blood 
circulation and to the digestive organs. Every downward 
movement of the diaphragm compresses the organs in the 
abdomen, stimulating the intestinal activity and forcing 
the blood and lymph from the abdominal vessels up into 
the chest. 

When we are under high nervous tension we are inclined 
to contract the muscles in the throat and chest and take 
short, shallow breaths. Relaxing this tension helps us to 
breathe deeply. When we play vigorously, as well as when 
we lie down, we breathe properly. A good way to break 
up the bad habit of excessive chest breathing and to learn 
to use a full diaphragmatic movement at will is to play hard 
till the breath is full and rapid, then stop and observe your 
breathing till you get the “ feel ” of the abdominal move- 


146 


AIR AND THE BREATHING ORGANS 


ment. As your breathing slows down practice making the 
movement at will. If you do not at first succeed, exercise 
vigorously again and study your breathing more carefully. 
When you get perfectly-the feel of the full breath you will 
be able to reproduce it. 

You may also lie on your back and study your normal 
breathing to get the “ feel ” of it. The breathing move¬ 
ments are the same but less marked than in the hard breath¬ 
ing after play. 

Another good exercise is as follows: Let the pupil stand 
with his back to the wall, touching it with heels, hips, and 
shoulders. Let the teacher place his fist firmly against the 
pit of the stomach of the pupil and require him by contrac¬ 
tion of the diaphragm to force the fist back. The pupil 
must keep hips and shoulders against the wall. The pupil 
should at first contract his diaphragm while holding his 
breath, afterward while inhaling. Practice the deep-breathing 
exercises until you have established the good habit, and if 
you find yourself falling back into the faulty method of ex¬ 
cessive chest movement, resume the practice of exercises till 
you have the habit more firmly rooted. 

Describe the movements of the body which occur in (a) inhala¬ 
tion, (b) exhalation. Placing your hand on your body, where do 
you feel the most movement when you inhale? The contraction 
of what muscle produces this movement? Where do you feel your 
muscles contract when you forcefully exhale in shouting? (If 
you feel a grip in your throat in shouting you are using your voice 
faultily.) Why do speakers and singers use the diaphragm move¬ 
ment more than the rib movement? Name two physical influ¬ 
ences which lead us to faulty breathing. What state of mind in¬ 
terferes with good breathing? When do we breathe properly? 
Describe two exercises which will help us learn to produce the 
proper breathing movements voluntarily — if we are unable to do 
so at once. (The teacher should insist that the pupils practice the 
deep breathing exercises until they have the habit of using the 
diaphragm properly in speaking.) 


CHAPTER IX 
THE KIDNEYS 


The Tcidneys are the filters of the Mood. 

— Bacon. 


Structure and Action. — The kidneys are bean-shaped 
organs about as long as the middle finger, that lie in the back 
of the abdominal cavity, just under the diaphragm — one 
on each side of the spinal column. They 
are the filters of the blood. The blood 
supply comes to them direct from the 
main artery and returns from them to 
the large vein that empties into the 
heart. (See Figure 24.) Within the kid¬ 
ney, the artery divides and subdivides 
until each minute branch ends in a clump 
or network of capillaries. These clumps 
are so tiny that there are approximately 
a half million of them in each kidney. 

Each of these clumps of capillaries is in 
contact with the end of a minute tube. 

These tubes are so small, so numerous, 
and so crooked that each kidney con¬ 
tains about fifteen miles of them. 

The wall of each of these kidney-tubes is composed of a 
single layer of rather thick cells, which act as a filter to the 
lymph. Their work is not simply mechanical; they are a 
live filter with power of selection. They hold back in the 
lymph (to be returned to the blood) the sugar and protein 
and fat — things needed in the body, but allow water and 

147 



Figure 75. — Diagram 
of Kidney Tubules. 












148 


THE KIDNEYS 


certain salts to pass through them. The chief salt thus 
excreted is u'rea, a nitrogenous waste. 

The excreted water with all that is dissolved in it travels 
through the kidney-tubes and empties into a cavity or reser¬ 
voir in the kidney called the pelvis. From the pelvis of 

each kidney the urine is carried 
to the bladder through a larger 
tube called ure'ter. 

The bladder is a sac for the 
temporary storage of urine. Its 
walls expand as it fills, and con¬ 
tract by means of muscles in them 
to drive the urine out through 
the ure'thra. At the beginning 
of the urethra is a ring of muscle 
which remains contracted to hold 
the opening shut, but relaxes to 
allow the bladder to empty. The 
The pyramids are composed mucous membrane which lines 
of the tubules. the bladder anc [ connecting pas¬ 

sages is rather thick and does not absorb the wastes 
extensively. 

Describe the general structure of the kidney. How are the 
waste products filtered out of the blood? What is the chief waste 
excreted through the kidneys? What do the cells of the kidney- 
tubes hold back in the lymph? Why should the pelvis of the kid¬ 
ney be called a reservoir? What is the function of the bladder? 
Describe its structure and workings. By what structure of the 
mucous membrane which lines the bladder and urinary passage 
is the rapid absorption of waste prevented ? 

How Much Water? — The quantity of the excretion from 
the kidneys depends largely on the blood pressure and the 
quantity of water in the blood. As in the case of a mechani¬ 
cal filter, the greater the pressure, the faster the fluid runs 
through. If the blood pressure gets very low the kidneys 
may fall short in their work and the body suffer from the 




DECREASE THE WASTE 


149 


accumulation of wastes. In summer when we perspire 
freely there is less water in the blood for the kidneys to re¬ 
move. As a result the urine is more concentrated. When 
we perspire less the kidneys remove more water and the 
urine is more dilute. 

The kidneys can not do their work well when there is too 
little water in the blood. Most of us should drink more 
water than we do, that the wastes may be more readily 
dissolved and filtered out. There is little danger of our 
drinking too much clear water. Light drinks, brewed, fer¬ 
mented, or carbonated, do tempt many people to drink so 
much that the kidneys are over-worked in removing the 
excess of water. Excessive beer drinkers commonly suffer 
from kidney disease. About three pints of water drunk 
each day, besides what is in the food, is a fair allowance. 
In summer we should increase the quantity to allow for 
perspiration. 

Name two influences which increase the rate of kidney excre¬ 
tion. How does a very low blood pressure affect the kidney’s 
work? Why is the urine commonly darker colored in summer 
than in winter? Why should most of us drink more than we do? 
What people often drink too much? With what result to the kid¬ 
neys? About how much water should we drink a day when we 
are not perspiring freely ? 

Decrease the Waste. — The less nitrogenous waste there 
is to be removed, the better it is for the kidneys. Nitroge¬ 
nous waste comes from two chief sources, the breaking down 
of protoplasm in the work of the cells and the excessive use 
of protein as a food. We can not limit the waste from the 
activity of the cells without limiting our daily activities of 
work and play. Therefore we must look to our food if we 
would decrease nitrogenous waste. 

We have seen that the cells of the liver take sugar out of 
the blood, change it to glycogen, and store it temporarily. 
If we eat much more protein than we need for the growth 


150 


THE KIDNEYS 


and repair of our cells, the excess is also changed — at least 
in part — to glycogen. But this change of protein to glyco¬ 
gen leaves a waste by-product (urea), which must be ex¬ 
creted by the kidneys. 

As has been said, the quantity of protein food needed is 
estimated by most students of the subject at from one fifth 
to one eighth of the total consumed. Growing boys and 
girls need relatively more than adults, since they must have 
protein both for growth and for repair. But for young and 
old the greater portion of food should be carbohydrates and 
fats. Adults whose main diet is protein food three times a 
day are putting an unnecessary strain on the kidneys that 
may some day break down the filtering system. When this 
happens, the cells of the kidney tubes no longer make any 
distinction between the foods and the waste. Thus ni¬ 
trogenous poisons are allowed to remain in the blood and al¬ 
bumin escapes through the kidneys. This is called Bright’s 
Disease and is a very serious ailment. 

What are the two chief sources of nitrogenous waste in the body? 
How can we safely cut down the amount of nitrogenous waste? 
Why is it less of a strain on the kidneys for the liver to store gly¬ 
cogen made from sugar than from protein ? Why should a growing 
boy or girl have relatively more protein than an adult? What 
serious result may follow an habitual diet of too much protein ? 

Warning Signals. — Doctors make occasional and some¬ 
times very frequent examinations of patients’ urine not 
only to learn about the state of the kidneys but also to find 
out what is going on in other parts of the body, for the con¬ 
dition of the urine throws a great deal of light on the body’s 
activities. It often warns of dangers that are not easily de¬ 
tected, otherwise. For example, an analysis that shows 
the presence of sugar in the urine indicates that the sugar 
storage process of the liver is failing. The kidneys are not 
adapted to keeping back sugar in large quantities. When 
there is more than about .2 of one per cent in the blood, it 


GERM INFECTIONS 


151 


is not the kidney’s fault if some of it is lost. The presence 
of albumin in the urine is a warning that must be heeded 
immediately, as has been shown above. The kidneys are 
pretty faithful and ‘able servants, but if we put on them 
more than they can do, we must blame ourselves and not 
our kidneys if things go wrong. 

What may a physician learn of a patient by an analysis of his 
urine? Give two examples. How may we reasonably hope to 
avoid these two ailments? 

Germ Infections. — Germs which get into the blood 
stream, such as tuberculosis, sometimes lodge and grow in 
the kidneys. Infected kidneys sometimes recover without 
an operation. Yet it is occasionally necessary to remove 
a kidney. If one of the kidneys is destroyed, it throws 
double work on the other. The destruction of both kidneys 
is fatal. 

Not many kinds of germs are likely to work up the urethra 
to the bladder and thence up the ureter to the kidneys. 
Some do, however, and it is a serious matter. 

Some of the toxins of germ diseases are very hard on the 
kidneys, rendering them incapable of doing their work well. 
This is an added reason for keeping ourselves as much as 
possible from infection and contagion. 

By what two avenues may disease germs reach the kidneys? 
How may certain germ diseases attacking other tissues harm the 
kidneys ? , 


CHAPTER X 


THE SKIN 


Bone and Shin, two millers thin, 

Would starve us all, or near it. 

But be it hnown to Shin and Bone 
That Flesh and Blood can’t bear it. 

— John Byrom. 


Function and Structure. — The three great functions of 
the skin are protection, sensation, and temperature regula¬ 
tion. For the first of these the skin must be water-tight, 
germ-proof, and strong enough to resist tearing easily. The 
strength of the skin lies in the intercellular fibers of which 
it is chiefly composed. Tear a piece of leather, and you see 
in the frayed edge the matted fibers; you also get an idea 
of the strength of the skin, for leather is no stronger than the 
skin of which it is made. 

The water-tight and germ-proof qualities of the skin are 
due to the epider'mis. This is the thin, outer layer of the 
skin and is composed of cells only. It would tear easily if 
it did not grow fast to the strong dermis underneath. The 
lower cells of the epidermis multiply continuously and crowd 
the upper cells away from the supply of food and moisture 
beneath. The upper, or outer, cells die and wear off, so the 
epidermis remains of about the same thickness all the time. 
The dead epidermal cells form the somewhat waxy, dry, 
hard surface of the skin, which is nearly water-proof and 
almost germ-proof. 

Pressure on the skin stimulates the epidermal cells to 
rapid growth, producing the hard, thick spots of callouses 
and corns. 


152 




FUNCTION AND STRUCTURE 153 



‘lc Touch Corpuscle Hair Horny Laver Artery 


« Germinal 
- Layer 


Dermis 


Sweat Gland 


Figure 77. — Diagrammatic Cross Section of the Skin. 

1. Which is thicker, the dermis or the epidermis ? 

2. Which part is composed of cells only ? 

3. Which part is chiefly composed of fibers ? 

4. In which part are blood vessels ? 

5. Where is the fat ? 

6. What is the situation of the oil gland ? 

7. What means is there for making the hair stand erect ? 

8. Describe the sweat gland. 









154 


THE SKIN 


We recognize three sense organs in the skin — those of 
touch, of heat, and of coid. These are formed by nerves 
which end in some of the lower cells of the epidermis and in 
peculiar little papil'lae, minute finger-like projections, which 
extend from the dermis into the epidermis. Some of these 
nerves, when their tips are stimulated from the outside, 
carry to the brain currents which give the sensation of touch. 
Others give the sensation of warmth, and still others that 
of cold. Where nerve endings are closer together, the sense 
of touch is more acute. 

The temperature regulation of the body is almost entirely 
accomplished by the skin, as explained on page 32. 

What are the three chief functions of the skin? What are the 
three chief qualities by virtue of which the skin is a good organ of 
protection? Why need the skin be water-tight? What detail 
of structure renders the skin water-tight and germ-proof? What 
are the little rolls you rub off your skin after a warm bath ? How 
is a callous produced? Of what is a corn composed? To what 
does the skin owe its mechanical strength? 

Name the sense organs situated in the skin. Just where do the 
nerves of sensation end in the skin? What difference makes the 
fingers better able to distinguish small things than the back of 
the hand? What parts of the body should you infer have few 
nerve endings? 

Review in detail the story of how the temperature of the body is 
regulated. How is heat produced in the body? How is it given 
off? How is the rate of losing made to equal exactly the rate of 
production ? 

Infections of the Skin.—Though the skin is fairly germ- 
proof, infections of it and through it occur in several ways. 
Accidental punctures and scratches and scrapes, large or 
small, introduce germs. A needle prick may carry in germs 
of blood poisoning, which result in serious illness and some¬ 
times in death. The explosion of a paper cap in a toy pistol 
may drive in the germs of tetanus and produce death. 
Though such terrible germs as these do not frequently at- 


INFECTIONS OF THE SKIN 


155 


tack us, it is of great importance that we keep the epidermis 
unbroken. Biting insects of many kinds force disease germs 
into the skin — either disease germs already lying on the 
skin or germs which they bring from other people. 

The germs lying on the skin and forced in by the bite 
commonly produce no more serious harm than a little pus¬ 
tule. Severe diseases whose germs are brought from sick 
people and bitten into the skin by insects in this country are 
yellow fever and malaria caused by mosquitoes (see pages 
118-122), mountain fever caused by ticks, the bubonic plague 
caused by fleas, typhus and trench fever caused by body lice. 

Some germs are able to work down the hair follicles and 
oil glands and produce pustules and boils. Common pim¬ 
ples ( ac'ne ) are so formed. Even when we are free from acne, 
germs may still get into our oil glands. But probably the 
germs which get in are killed by our white blood cells. Acne 
comes probably when our white cells fail to kill the germs. 
Indigestion is often accompanied by pimples. The treatment 
of severe cases of acne should be entrusted to a physician. 

We can all do something to keep the skin free from pus¬ 
tules by maintaining a good condition of the stomach and 
by keeping the skin clean. Pustules should be pricked open 
with a septically clean needle, the pus squeezed gently out 
and wiped off, and the skin sponged with alcohol or other 
antiseptic. 

Boils and carbuncles are deeper seated pustules, of more 
poisonous germs. The germs are sometimes forced into the 
skin by scratching with the finger nails. Don’t scratch 
your skin. A stiff collar may rub in the germs to cause 
carbuncles in the neck. Carbuncles should be opened, the 
pus let out, and the skin around them sponged with an anti¬ 
septic. A hot compress will keep the surface soft and thus 
somewhat relieve the pain, reduce the swelling, and help 
to expel the pus. The old-fashioned poultices are objec¬ 
tionable in that they harbor germs. They accomplish noth- 


156 


THE SKIN 


ing but to keep the surface moist. A hot antiseptic com¬ 
press is better. 

The pustules of smallpox and chicken pox are made by 
germs brought to the skin in the blood. Some germs, e. g. 

ringworm, live on the 
surface of the skin and 
in the hair follicles and 
in the hairs themselves. 
A single treatment with 
iodin will kill the germs 
on the surface. If they 
get into the hair, it may 
take months of treatment 
to get rid of them. Itch 
is caused by a tiny mite 
which burrows in the 
skin. It is killed by an 
ointment. Ringworm 
and itch are contagious. 
Children having them 



Tick 


- Itch Mite 

Figure 78. — Parasites Which Infest 
the Human Skin. 

The small sketches are natural size, should keep away from 
The flea carries the germs of bubonic Others, 
plague. The louse is the “cootie” of 

war-time fame. It conveys the germs of What very d a n g e r o u s 
typhus fever. The tick carries the germs £ erms i n ^° skin 

which cause Rocky Mountain spotted throu S h very small pricks? 
fever. The itch mite burrows in the skin Why should we as s00n as 
and so causes the itch disease. In the possible put iodin on 
middle of the figure are four mold-like etches, scrapes, and punc- 
threads, more or less broken up into turesof the skin? How can 
spores, which grow in the skin and hair biting insects produce pus- 
causing the ringworm — not a worm at tules? Name several severe 
all but a plant parasite. diseases communicated by 

biting insects, and the insect 
which brings each. What produces pimples? What condition 
of the body is conducive to acne ? What care should we give 
the pimple? What can we do to prevent acne? Describe the 
method of taking care of a boil or carbuncle. Why are poultices 




CLOTHING 


157 


objectionable? What is better than a poultice? What germs 
brought by the blood produce pustules in the skin? What is 
ringworm? How is it cured? What is itch? How cured? How 
prevented ? 

Clothing. — We adapt our clothing pretty well to the use 
it is to serve, except when vanity overrides judgment — a 
thing far too common. We have strong clothing to protect 
us from scratches and bruises when we work, warm clothing 
for winter, light-weight clothing for summer. However, 
there are some particulars in which we are quite irrational 
in our use of clothing. We must try to bring all our prac¬ 
tices into harmony with the needs of the body. The chief 
physiological function of clothing is to keep the skin at a 
temperature nearly uniform. A regard for our own comfort 
prompts us to adapt our clothing to this end, but conven¬ 
tion often interferes. Men’s coats are ridiculously warm in 
summer, while women’s light garments are quite sensible. 
In cold weather, however, men are more sensibly dressed, 
and women, though they may not admit the fact, suffer 
from exposed chests and thinly clad feet and legs. If it 
were a matter of comfort only, we could pass it by in silence, 
but it is a matter of health and should have our careful at¬ 
tention. 

Some people have a theory that we should make ourselves 
hardy by constant exposure to inclement weather. There 
is considerable truth in this theory, and it is a natural re¬ 
coil from the common practice of wearing clothing too heavy. 
Fresh air, even on bitter cold days, is a good thing, and we 
should train ourselves to be able to enjoy it for a little while. 
But there is no good to be had from suffering from the cold. 
It is better for us to go out warmly dressed. Yet if we are 
too warmly dressed, so that the skin is moist and soft, there 
is danger of its becoming chilled and the blood driven out 
and congested in the mucous membrane with a resulting 
cold or worse. We should aim at a medium course. 


158 


THE SKIN 


Clothing which does not permit a good ventilation of the 
skin or is tight is objectionable. Our feet suffer most from 
poor ventilation, as their moist, unhealthy skin attests. 
Low shoes are not so bad as high; sandals would be better 
than either. Garters around the leg constrict the veins and 
interfere seriously with the circulation. There are defenders 
of the low, comparatively loose corset, though it is poorly 
ventilated and interferes with the blood circulation of the 
skin; but there is only condemnation for the tight garment 
which not only injures the skin, but deranges the whole blood 
circulation and breathing process and crowds the organs 
of the abdomen and pelvis out of place, frequently with 
tragic results. 

The material of which our clothing is made is not so im¬ 
portant. Wool can not be woven into cloth so thin as cot¬ 
ton, linen, and silk. Therefore it is better adapted to winter. 
Its spongy texture enables it to hold more air (a noncon¬ 
ductor of heat), and so it better protects the skin against 
sudden changes of temperature. It is more comfortable 
than cotton when a garment is wet. On the other hand it 
is more difficult to wash than cotton — and it is important 
that clothes be kept clean. 

Think of. as many ways as you can in which our clothing 
is adapted to its uses. What is the main value of clothing as a 
health factor? Give as many illustrations as you can of the way 
in which convention restricts our reason and comfort in the matter 
of clothes. What virtue is there in the notion that we should 
toughen ourselves to endure inclement weather? Is it better for 
us to dress warm when we go out in the cold, or to school ourselves 
to endure the discomfort ? Why is it not advisable to wear a heavy 
woolen “ tippet ” around the neck? Why are the chamois “ chest 
protectors ” not advisable for most of us? 

What objection is there to wearing a rain coat a great deal? 
How do rubber boots injure the feet when worn too much? In 
what way are low shoes better than high? What benefit can come 
from going barefoot? Why are garters objectionable? What 


BATHING 159 

is better for a girl to wear than a corset? Explain how the old- 
style tight corset injured its wearer. 

Explain how wool is better adapted to winter wear than are 
other common cloths. Why does the nurse use flannel for the 
young baby’s binder or shirt? Think of several reasons why work 
clothes are made of cotton. 

Bathing. — The chief aim of the bath is cleanliness. 
There is little danger that any of us will be too clean or 
bathe too often. Two or three short baths a day would 
do us no harm, but are not necessary for reasonable clean¬ 
liness. Soil and soot on the skin are not a menace to health, 
but the germs of pus and disease are. Some of these are 
usually present. A scrub removes most of them. The 
social value of cleanliness is as great as the health value. 
The dead cells and the oil and sweat on the skin do us no 
harm, but do become offensive if not washed off. A bath each 
day keeps us clean. Once or twice a week does fairly well. 
Soap should not be used too freely. A scrub with soap and 
hot water once a week is often enough, especially in winter 
when the cool skin secretes less. 

The cold bath in the morning is of great value to many 
people, but must not be recommended to all. It is a stim¬ 
ulus to our sluggish activities. Try it for a few weeks. If 
you feel warm and more like working after it, make it your 
habit. If it leaves you cold and half dreading to repeat it, 
try a warm sponge or a dry rub instead. Don’t think it 
your duty to take a cold bath, and don’t feel virtuous be¬ 
cause it is your practice. It is a good tonic for those who 
react well to it, but weakens those who do not. The cold 
bath should last only a minute or two, and its temperature 
should be adapted to the vigor of the bather. A hot bath 
in the evening will often relieve nervous tension and bring 
reluctant sleep. 

Therapeutic baths are of great value in treating some dis¬ 
eases, but they should be used under the direction of a physi¬ 
cian. 


160 


THE SKIN 


What is the main purpose of bathing? How does bathing pro¬ 
mote health? Explain the social value of bathing. Why is a 
hot water and soap scrub advisable once a week but not daily? 
In what way does the cold bath in the morning do us good ? How 
can you tell whether it would be good for you? If you find the 
cold bath objectionable, what might you try instead? How long 
should you stay in a cold bath? If you are wakeful after an even¬ 
ing of study what can you do to get the blood from the brain to the 
skin? What are therapeutic baths? Why should we be suspi¬ 
cious of the advertisements of those who claim to work wonderful 
cures by the baths they give? 

Cosmetics. — Powder and paint are relics of barbarism. 
The reds and pinks and whites and blacks we use are no 
more beautiful than the greens and browns and whites and 
blacks of savages. We can not condemn them too strongly 
from an esthetic standpoint. But we should tell the truth 
about them. They do not poison the skin and fill up the 
pores. They are sometimes substituted for washing — 
which is a pity. The most beautiful complexion derives 
its beauty from within. We should aim to have a healthy 
skin. That means a clean skin, good digestion and a vigor¬ 
ous blood circulation, — general good health. 

Cold creams help keep the skin soft, especially after soap 
has washed off the natural oil. But we should not be taken 
in by the hoax of “ feeding the skin ” with any cosmetic. 
The skin food comes from the blood. Many hand lotions 
are good for chapped skin, though the advertisers are likely 
to overstate their value. 

What sound objection is there to powder and paint on the skin? 
How is a beautiful complexion to be obtained? Do you know of 
any evidence that the skin can be “ fed ” from the outside? For 
what is cold cream good? What are hand lotions good for? 

Hair. — Hair has a protective use, as those of us who 
have little know on a cold day. But it is worth preserving 
for its esthetic value as well. Hair grows by the addition 
to its Moot of particles from the epidermis. The hair itself 
has no life. If the epidermis of the scalp is healthy the hair 


HAIR 


161 



grows better. The best we can do to preserve it is to take 
care of the skin. We should keep the scalp clean, free from 
germs. Rubbing is good to stimulate the blood supply. 
Hair is sometimes clipped 
to make it grow thicker. 

There is no reason to sup¬ 
pose the cutting has any 
such effect. Hair is often 
injured by a curling iron 
too hot. Fortunately the 
roots are unharmed and 
the new growth will in 
time repair the injury. 

We are advised not to wet 
the hair frequently in 
combing it. 

The scalp needs a thor¬ 
ough soap suds bath occa¬ 
sionally. Two or three 
times a month is regarded 
as adequate for ladies, 
whose long hair makes the 
process rather tedious. 

Men may well scrub theirs 
every week, and if they 
work in dirt and grease, 
more frequently. 

The dead cells of the 
skin falling off form a 
white, scaly substance 
quite normal to the scalp; but excessive dandruff indicates 
an unhealthy condition. You are more likely to get help in 
treating it by consulting the doctor than the barber. Most 
hair dressers advise (from their expert ignorance) the use 
of whatever tonic they happen to have on their shelves. 


Figure 79. — Paul Ehrlich. 

Born in 1854, he was a devoted student 
of disease-producing germs. His careful 
and multitudinous experiments resulted 
in the discovery of salvarsan, a drug 
which cures some of the worst infectious 
diseases. 




162 


THE SKIN 


The misfortune of baldness is often laid to the stiff hat, —- 
it checks circulation in the scalp, so they tell us. But we 
are not told that Socrates and Elisha wore the derby. The 
fact is that the defective condition of the scalp which results 
in baldness is sometimes due to disease and sometimes in¬ 
herited. We can do nothing for it other than to keep the 
scalp as healthy as possible. 

The color of the hair is given by pigment (little grains of 
color) deposited in the middle of the hair. What the color 
is depends altogether on inheritance, as does the color of the 
eyes. When the cells which produce the hair cease de¬ 
positing the pigment, the hair is white. Dying and bleach¬ 
ing are the only methods of altering the color. The hair 
restorers and all patent dopes are complete frauds, notwith¬ 
standing all their glowing testimonials. 

Give two good reasons for preserving the hair. How does hair 
grow? What can we do to keep it growing well? How does cut¬ 
ting affect the hair’s growth? What does excessive dandruff in¬ 
dicate? Whom should you ask to treat it? Some young men are 
bald at twenty-five; is it from wearing tight hats or from the fail¬ 
ure to use tonics ? What determines the color of one’s hair ? Can 
it be naturally changed? What would you say about all adver¬ 
tised hair remedies ? 

Nails. — The nails of the fingers and toes are of more use 
than we sometimes think. Fortunately our abuse of them, 
if it does not extend to the skin cells from which they grow, 
can be easily remedied. A complete new nail grows in a 
few months. The habit so many children have of biting 
the nails short deprives the fingers of a needed protection, 
makes them stubby and sometimes sore, and unable to pick 
up small things like pins. The nails themselves recover 
in a few days if they are allowed to grow. The fingers do 
not so quickly get over their stubbiness. No matter how 
style may require a finger nail to be tapering to a rounded 


NAILS 


163 



point, for convenient use the nail should be cut as round as 
the tip of the finger and just a little shorter. If the nails 
are allowed to get too long, they break or tear back so far 
as to make them too short for use, and sometimes so far into 
the attached area as to make 
them sore. Nails cut best 
when they have been soaked 
in warm water. When the 
nail is dry a file leaves its 
edge smooth. 

One of the most annoying 
finger nail defects is the hang¬ 
nail, a little sliver at the side 
of the nail. It catches against 
the sides of pockets and many 
things that touch the fingers, 
is bent back and tears the 
cells at its base. Bacteria 
get into the tear and pro¬ 
duce an irritating inflamma¬ 
tion. We should trim off the 
hangnail and use iodin to 
disinfect the injury. If the 
nails are well cared for, the 
hangnail will be trimmed off 
when it first starts before it 
has a chance to split back 
painfully. 

The toe nails should be cut 
square across and shorter 
than the flesh, so that they will not press against the toe 
of the shoe. 


Figure 80. — A Contrast. 

The nails of the upper hand have been 
abused till the tips of the fingers are 
positively deformed. If the girl who 
thus mistreats her nails will overcome 
her bad habit, she will have fingers as 
shapely and efficient as those on the 
other hand. 


Why should children not get the habit of biting their nails? 
How long should finger nails be cut? How would long toe nails 
affect the stocking? Name several objections to letting the nails 




164 


THE SKIN 



grow long. What is a hangnail? How should we treat a sore 
hangnail ? How can we prevent the soreness ? 

Warts. — We commonly consider warts a trivial incon¬ 
venience, but sometimes they seriously interfere with work. 
They are abnormal growths of skin thought to be caused by 
certain germs. Therefore antiseptics should be used on 


Figure 81. —X-ray of a Foot in a Foolish Shoe. 

Note the high heel, the bent toes bearing most of the weight of the body, 
and the leg slanting forward in an awkward position. 

them to prevent their spread. A caustic (nitric acid or 
silver nitrate) may be applied to the wart a few times to 
kill the tissue. The wart will then drop off. Care should 
be taken to get no caustic on the healthy skin. The wart 
is sometimes removed by a physician with a knife or an 
electric needle. 

How is a wart caused ? Therefore, what should be done to pre¬ 
vent its spread ? How can it be cured ? 

Shoes. — The article of clothing that abuses us most is 
the shoe. Thousands of would-be-soldiers were rejected 




SHOES 


165 


in the enlistment camps because their feet had been ruined 
by ill-fitting shoes. Seventy-one per cent of all the men were 
wearing shoes which were too short; only nineteen per cent 
had the correct size. Women’s feet are abused worse than 
men’s. 

The army rule for fitting shoes is a good one. The soldier, 
with a pack on his back, must stand barefoot on a paper 



Figure 82.— X-ray of a Foot in a Sensible Shoe. 

Note the low heel which bears a large part of the weight of the body, and 
the leg rising straight up from the arch. 

while the outline of his foot is traced. The shoe must be 
as wide as the mark on the paper, and must have low heels 
and thick but flexible soles. In such a shoe, padded with a 
heavy sock, a soldier’s foot can tramp all day without chafe 
or blister. Corns and bunions will never grow. 

Corns are thickenings of the epidermis caused by the 
pressure of the shoe. They are much like the callouses of 
the hand, but narrower and thicker. Their abnormal pres¬ 
sure against the tissue beneath makes it inflamed and sore. 
Corns can be softened and removed by any of the corn- 



166 


THE SKIN 


removing applications. It is more sensible to prevent them 
by wearing properly fitting shoes. Bunions are abnormal 
outgrowths of bone stimulated by ill-fitting shoes. They 

are not only an unsightly 
deformity but are often 
sore. Shoes will not fit 
over them. They can 
be removed only by a 
surgical operation. 

High heels injure not 
only the feet by throw¬ 
ing too much weight on 
the toes, thus ramming 
the toes into the narrow 




Figure 83. — Shoes. 

1. In which shoe could a girl stand and 
walk with the greater comfort ? 

2. Which shoe would be more likely to 
catch in going downstairs ? 

3. In which shoe would the ankle be more tips of the shoes but 

likely to be sprained ? they extend tfaeir b&ne _ 

ful influence to the whole body. A well-known doctor ap¬ 
plies to them the term 11 fool-killer. ,, The high, narrow 
heel wobbles and is likely to turn the ankle with result- 



Figure 84.— Feet. 

The left-hand figure represents a normal foot; the right-hand a weak 
foot whose arch is down. 

ing sprain. It easily catches while going up or down steps 
and throws its wearer. It prevents straightening the knee 
in walking and so causes a stubby, ridiculous gait with an 
awkward carriage of the body. A girl rarely stands 
straight when she wears high heels. Low, broad, rubber 
heels are best. High-heeled shoes are neither socially nor 
hygienically correct for street use . A shoe should fit snug 










SHOES 


167 


at the heel and be laced at the instep so as to prevent any 
shucking about. The toes should be loose, not crowded at 
either side or end. 

Ingrowing nails on the great toe are not the fault of the 
nail but of the narrow shoe crowding the flesh up over the 
edge of the nail. Relief can be 
had by separating the corner of 
the nail from the flesh with a 
bit of aseptic cotton and by 
notching the nail in the middle 
so that the nail can yield when 
pressed sidewise. A bad case 
may need the surgeon’s aid. 

Some of our toes are commonly 
cramped and crowded into 
painful and unsightly deform¬ 
ities by shoes too tight at the 
toes. Our only prevention is Figure 85. — X-rays of Arches. 
to care more for good feet than Above, a fallen arch; below, 
for fancy shoes and select our the same held U P b y an artificial 

! • t support. 

gear accordingly. 

The foot forms an arch from the heel to the ball of the 
foot, the leg bones resting on the top of the curve. This 
arch “ gives ” like a spring under the weight of the body 
at each step. This makes walking easy and light. Some¬ 
times the ligaments of the arch stretch and let the top of the 
arch down, or the feet become tired because of ill-fitting 
shoes or too much standing and turn over on the side for 
ease. This is commonly called flat foot or broken arches; 
weak foot is a better term. 

A weak foot can usually be strengthened by exercise. 
If your feet are tired and ache at the end of the day, remove 
your shoes and put on a pair of soft slippers. Bathe and 
rub the feet; give them thorough massage. Exercise the 
bare foot by a variety of movements, as follows: 



168 


THE SKIN 


(1) Stand erect and rise on the toes. 

(2) Rest the weight on 
the heels and lift the toes 
from the floor. 

(3) With one foot 12 or 
15 inches advanced, and both 
feet pointing straight for¬ 
ward, rock slowly forward on 
the toes and backward on 
the heels : advance the other 
foot and repeat. 

(4) While sitting, with the 
feet resting gently on the 
floor, bend the toes under as 
if you were trying to clutch 
the carpet; pick up articles 
with the toes; holding the 
heels an inch or two from 
the floor, rotate the toes 
slowly as nearly in a circle 
as possible. 

If these exercises do not 
in the course of a few weeks 
strengthen your feet so that 
you can get through the day 
in comfort, consult an or¬ 
thopedic surgeon. If you 
just endure the trouble and 
let it alone, it may become 
a lifelong weakness, making standing painful and walking 
a burden. The surgeon can usually relieve and often cure 
the defect by appliances and special shoes. The shoe clerk 
will try to sell you arch supports, whether you have good 
arches or not. An ignorant clerk’s advice about such an 
important member as the foot may do more harm than 


Figure 86. — Barefoot Tracks. 

The tracks (A) were made by a weak 
foot, — arch fallen, toeing out; (B) by 
a perfect foot, — arch elevated, toeing 
straight forward. 




SHOES 


169 


good. If anything more than a well-fitting shoe is needed, a 
surgeon should be consulted. 

It is good economy to have two pairs of shoes for daily 
wear and change them alternate days. The feet are rested 
by the change, and the shoes will last longer. 

Our stockings are commonly too small. They wear 
longer and are more comfortable if they are as large as they 
ought to be. With a number 5 shoe we should wear a num¬ 
ber 10 stocking, with a 7 shoe an 11 stocking, with a 9 shoe 
an 11-J stocking, with an 11 shoe a 12 stocking. Wool is 
best for walking; two pairs at once for a long hike. 

Describe a good way of measuring the foot to get a properly 
fitting shoe. Why are heavy wool socks best for walking? De¬ 
scribe a corn. How is it produced? How can it be cured? Will 
it recur if the shoes do not fit well? What is a bunion? How can 
it be cured? What bad effects come from high heels? Where 
should a shoe be snug? Where loose? How are ingrowing nails 
caused? How can they be relieved? What is a weak foot? 
What can be done for it? Why should one wear arch supports 
only on a physician’s advice? 


I 


CHAPTER XI 

BONE AND MUSCLE 


In life's small things be resolute and great 
To Tceep thy muscle trained. 

. — James Russell Lowell. 


By means of our muscles and bones we have motion, and 
motion expresses life. By movement also we win the means 
to sustain life, to improve our conditions of living. It be¬ 
hooves us, then, to keep these organs of movement in good 
condition. 

Nourishment. — We should aim to have our bones and 
muscles grow to their full development. War-time ex¬ 
aminations of the bodies of the young men of the nation 
revealed, to our consternation, a woeful inadequacy of de¬ 
velopment in a large part of the population. The chief 
cause of this defect is inadequate food for children. Milk 
is a complete food for children the first few months of their 
lives, and should form a large part of their diet for several 
years. If good milk is given children in abundance and 
they share the bread, vegetables, and fruit on the table of 
the adults, there is little to fear for their nourishment. 

But we must remember that children are making bone 
and muscle and can not grow at their normal rate on such 
food as sustains life in many adults. When fresh milk is 
wanting in the diet of children, they usually suffer from the 
lack of vitamines. Vitamines, as has been shown (page 
60 ), can be obtained in fruit, vegetables, and butter, but no 
food can satisfactorily take the place of milk. 

The lack of vitamines is most marked in the child when 
it results in the disease called rickets , which is a lack of de- 

170 




NOURISHMENT 


171 



velopment of the bones. The bones do not become large 
and strong — do not have a sufficient deposit of stony mat¬ 
ter to make them stiff. Therefore the leg bones bend under 
the child’s weight, causing bow legs or knock knees. The 
jaw bones are not large enough to make room for the teeth. 
The teeth are not 
strong. The imperfect 
cranium does not give 
room for a large brain 
growth. The chest frame 
is not adequate. The 
arms are weak. We used 
to say that the child’s 
food was deficient in the 
minerals needed by the 
bones. But to give the 
medicinal compounds 
containing the minerals 
alone did no good. The 
vitamines are necessary 
to make the cells of the 
bone build the minerals 
into its structure. Young 
children suffering from 
rickets can usually be 
cured by giving them an 
adequate diet, especially 
milk. Slightly crooked 
bones will then grow 
straight. If the child 
is neglected until his 
crooked and under-devel¬ 
oped bones eventually harden, a surgical operation may 
be required to correct the defect. 

No special bone food, no special muscle food is required 


Figure 87. — Bobby Anderson. 

This boy, three and a half years old, 
uses the best food for growing children. 
In addition to milk he eats bread, vege¬ 
tables, and fruit. 




172 


BONE AND MUSCLE 


for the full development of the body, just common proteins, 
fats, and carbohydrates in a well-balanced ration, with a 
certainty of mineral salts and vitamines. Sufficient minerals 
for the bones will be found in bread, vegetables, and milk. 

It is not enough for us simply to learn how important 



Figure 88. — Hercules and Jason. 


These ancient statues represent two styles of physical excellence, one 
massive power, the other supple grace. If you have not the possibility of 
developing the great muscles of a Hercules, you can be just as healthful and 
efficient in modern life by attaining the form of Jason. 

it is that children be well nourished; we must see that they 
are cared for. Tens of thousands of children in our land 
are growing up stunted and malformed because their parents 
are too poor or too ignorant to provide properly for them. 
They are our fellow citizens, who will share with us the life 
of the community. They will be a burden instead of a 





EXERCISE 


173 


help, if we do nothing to provide for their nourishment now. 
For our self-protection, if for no other reason, we should de¬ 
vise some plan by which every boy and girl should have the 
necessities for full development. 

What is the chief cause of the lack of full development in so 
many of our citizens? What bone disease comes from deficient 
nourishment? By what symptoms is it shown? What one arti¬ 
cle of diet would largely correct this deficiency? What foods are 
bone foods? What foods are muscle foods? Whose duty is it to 
provide for the adequate nourishment of the growing generation? 

Exercise. — The human body developed from our lowly 
ancestors to meet the requirements of primitive man, who 
had to run and climb and strike, to work nearly all his mus¬ 
cles vigorously, to escape his enemies and win his living. 
His muscles developed by use; ours now grow by use. If 
we leave them a long time idle, they waste away, as in 
paralysis. If our daily work does not require a considerable 
use of our muscles, we should take exercise to supplement 
the lack. Our exercise, like the necessary activities of our 
remote ancestors, should bring into play all our muscles. 
Exercise benefits not only the muscles of the trunk and limbs 
but also the heart and the respiratory organs. In fact ex¬ 
ercise should be tempered to the condition of the heart even 
more than to the skeletal muscles. 

Exercise should be light at first and gradually increase 
till it becomes vigorous, with rapid heart beat, full respira¬ 
tion, and perspiration. Play is the best exercise; work is 
likely to consist of very limited motions, monotonously 
repeated. Youth has most need of exercise. As age pro¬ 
gresses, exercise should decrease in time and vigor, but as 
long as strength remains exercise will help conserve it and 
improve the general health. People who are ill, or disabled 
by accident, or too lazy to exercise, or who because of 
imperfect heart or nerve system are unable to exercise vig¬ 
orously, sometimes have massage as a substitute for exercise. 


174 


BONE AND MUSCLE 


An operator rubs and kneads the muscles to stimulate the 
circulation through them, moving his hands from the ex¬ 
tremities toward the trunk, in the direction of the venous 
flow. The increased blood supply brings the muscles more 
food and increases their strength. 



Keystone View Co. of N.Y . 


Figure 89. — A Young Champion. 
This thirteen-year-old girl beat seven 
women competitors in a diving contest. 
Swimming is one of the best health-pro¬ 
moting sports. 


How does the human an¬ 
cestry indicate the need of 
exercise? What happens to 
a muscle that is not used? 
What besides the muscles 
of your trunk and limbs is 
benefited by exercise ? What 
degree of exercise is desir¬ 
able? Why is play better 
exercise than work? How 
does the exercise of middle 
age and of old age compare 
with that of youth ? What 
may be employed by invalids 
in place of exercise? What 
is one of the ways in which 
it benefits them? In rub¬ 
bing the limbs, in what di¬ 
rection should the hands 
move? Why in this direc¬ 
tion ? 

Games. —Though most 
young people play games 
very properly for the fun 
of it, they should under¬ 
stand the hygienic value 
of play and choose their 
games, at least to some 
extent, with the health 


end in view. Many times games injure instead of promot¬ 
ing the health of the players. Football is regarded by many 
advisors as too strenuous a game for high school boys. 
Their bones and muscles are not yet fully developed and 




GAMES 


175 


are therefore more subject to breaks and sprains. Though 
the boys need vigorous exercise they may be injured by the 
strain of the game. With a view to relieving the strain of 
long-continued exertion, the game, formerly played in two 
halves, is now divided into four quarters with rest periods 
between. 

Almost the same thing may be said of basketball. Both 
are good games if they are not carried to extremes. Little 
children rarely have the energy to drive themselves to ex¬ 
tremes, but high school and college boys and girls must be 
careful not to overdo. 

Boat racing is one of the most strenuous sports and is a 
terrific strain on the heart. Exertion at the top notch is 
maintained for so long a period that the heart is exhausted. 
It is a common thing for an oarsman to topple over uncon¬ 
scious in the boat. Long-distance running has a similar 
exhausting effect on the heart. 

The track has its dangers also. As a result of long ex¬ 
perience physical directors have learned that the younger 
boys are injured by the longer races. They have fixed a 
scale about as follows: Boys under 14 years should not run 
more than 60 yards; under 15 years, 100 yards; under 16 
years, 440 yards; under 17 years, 880 yards; under 18 
years, 1000 yards; men not over a mile. Girls should be 
limited to 60 yards. This scale must not be taken to imply 
that the shorter races are never injurious to the older boys 
and men. The 440 and the 880 are regarded as most try¬ 
ing to the older runners, because they are run all the way 
at top speed, while in the longer races the runners slow down 
part of the time. 

Putting the shot is forbidden to boys under 16 years and 
to girls. It strains the abdomen and is likely to produce 
hernia , a break in the muscular wall through which the in¬ 
testine protrudes against the skin. Boys of 16 may use the 
8 pound shot; boys of 18, the 12 pound; men, the 16 pound. 


176 


BONE AND MUSCLE 


There are of course occasional accidents in all kinds of 
games, but some games are comparatively free from the 
risks in which others abound, and they should receive our 
preference. There are many such — baseball, indoor ball, 
soccer, tennis, swimming, rowing (not racing), horseback 
riding, skating, walking, etc. It brings more muscles into 
action for a boy or girl to play a variety of games rather 
than a single game. 

A very important consideration in games is that they 
should be for everybody, not for athletes only. It may be 
all right at times to have a thousand or ten thousand on the 
bleachers and eighteen or twenty-two on the field. But 
to be always on the bleachers and never on the field is poor 
physical training. Our system of inter-school games has 
its values, but we must be careful that it does not betray 
us into giving much attention to those who need it least and 
little attention to those who need it most. Schools are 
modifying their scheme somewhat, with a view to bringing 
more pupils into action, but they should revolutionize it 
if that is necessary to get everyone into the game. 

Give two good reasons for playing games. Name some games 
which have seriously harmful features. Why may some games be 
dangerous for high school boys while safe for small boys? What 
change of rules was made a few years ago for relieving the strain 
of basketball and football? Name several games in which the 
players are little likely to overdo or be injured by accident. Why 
is it better for one not to confine his play to a single game ? 

Who most need to play games ? Suggest some method by which 
more boys and girls can be brought into the games at school. 

Military Training. — When the young men of the nation 
entered the training camps for the war they were in poor 
physical condition. When they had finished a few months’ 
training they had ruddy skins, hard muscles, and strong 
hearts. We saw the benefit derived from the physical train¬ 
ing of the camps. With careless reasoning we said we must 
put military training into our schools and make all our boys 


RHYTHM 


177 


strong. So in some high schools the boys were dressed in 
uniform, equipped with heavy guns and marched up and 
down. While a few minutes of such work will do pupils 
no appreciable injury, it is not a suitable substitute for play. 
It is stiff and monotonous. The guns are too heavy. Phys¬ 
ical directors are generally agreed that the marching and 
gun drill are inferior means of physical training. They lack 
most of the desirable elements of exercise. 

The soldiers’ life in the open air, their setting up exer¬ 
cises, varied activities, and wholesome food gave them their 
strength and vigor. These conditions are not duplicated 
in our school military training. 

What misled us to think that drill with guns is good physical 
training for boys? In what way does such military drill fall short 
of the requirements of good exercise ? 

Rhythm. — The aim of muscular training is not to make 
the muscles as hard as possible, able to pull the utmost load. 
Our ideal is not Sandow, or Hercules, or Ajax. We want 
our muscles to move with the greatest efficiency in the things 
we have to do. This includes quickness, fineness, pliancy, 
rhythm, as well as force. Training the muscles is to a large 
degree training the nerve system, which controls them. 
The actions of the two are inseparable. We must not think 
that muscle training is a lower order of education, fit only 
for bullies. The Greeks recognized music and dancing as 
major factors in education. Music and dancing, for how 
can music be fully expressed without the rhythmic move¬ 
ment of the body, and what is dancing but the normal ex¬ 
pression of musical emotion? So when we dance we are 
training ourselves in music, in the appreciation of a beau¬ 
tiful expression of life. Even ballroom dancing has some 
degree of rhythmic muscular training. Interpretive danc¬ 
ing is more free and aims in the right direction. It is per¬ 
haps the precursor of a better system of rhythmic muscular 
training. 


178 


BONE AND MUSCLE 


What is the ideal of muscular development? Why should not 
the prize-fighter and wrestler, though beautifully strong, be taken 
as the boy’s physical ideal? What more than strength is required 
of muscle? How does rhythmic muscular training harmonize 
with musical education? Discuss dancing as a means of educa¬ 
tion. If you enjoy dancing, see if you can tell what there is about 
it that you like. How can dancing be made a more useful factor 
in education? 

Home Exercise. — For years people have recognized the 
fact that we need more exercise than we get. Most work 
requires only limited movements; some of our muscles 
left inactive, deteriorate. They particularly need to be 
exercised. Comparatively few of us can go to the gymna¬ 
sium. We need to exercise at home. To that end many 
devices have been invented, with elastics, springs, weights, 
and pulleys, which can be used in one’s own room in con¬ 
venient dress. We have dumbbells, clubs, and wands. 
There are sets of exercises to be done without apparatus, — 
the Swedish movements, the Danish movements, and a 
number of movements devised in this country. 

All these things are good, but they lack the element of 
play, there is no zest in them. If a few people can do them 
together, they have the added interest of sociability and are 
done with more spirit. The exercises without apparatus 
are to be preferred; they cost nothing and are rather more 
flexible and varied. If one forms the habit of going through 
certain exercises before getting into bed (or upon rising in the 
morning) just as he has the habit of cleaning his teeth, he 
will find it takes no special effort to bring himself to do them, 
and that his sleep will be better and his body fitter. 

If we have considerable physical work, what muscles still need 
exercise? Why do we need something in addition to gymnasium 
work for exercise? What is the preferred means of exercising in 
one’s own room? Should the windows be open during the exer¬ 
cise? How can we put a little of the play spirit into such exer¬ 
cise? What can we do to insure its regular performance? (Let 
the teacher go through with the class such exercises as are illus- 


HOME EXERCISE 


179 


trated by Figure 90; then ask the pupils to do them every 
evening for three months. The movements should be slow and 
accompanied by deep breathing. While the habit is being formed 



Figure 90. — Home Exercises. 




some effort must be made to stimulate interest in the undertaking. 
To this end write the names of all the pupils on a score card with 
a blank square after each name for each day of the month, and 










180 


BONE AND MUSCLE 


have each pupil when he comes to the class make a check mark in 
the square of the preceding day if he went through the exercise.) 

Posture. — Why do we like to see a girl or a boy stand¬ 
ing straight with head erect and walking with a springy 
forceful step? We do not perhaps think out the reason. If 



Figure 91. — Stand Straight. 

Point out the particulars in which one of these postures is superior to the 
other two. 


we did, we should find it to lie in the fact that posture por¬ 
trays character. Sound health, a cheerful disposition, good 
will to others, courage, and ambition, normally express 
themselves in a fine, upstanding body. Moreover, an up¬ 
right body allows free movement of the organs of the abdo¬ 
men, while a stooping position cramps them and interferes 
with the blood circulation. 




































POSTURE 


181 


We know, too, that the attitude of the body influences 
the state of the mind. If you assume the attitude and aspect 
of a fighter, you feel pugnacious. If you take on the limp 
and wilted attitude of exhaustion, you feel “ all in.” So 
if you sit and stand and walk in the posture of one who is 
strong and courageous and cheerful, it will add to your 
efficiency and make the world bright and rosy for you. 



Figure 92. — Sit Straight. 


Point out the particulars in which one position is better than the other. 


In sitting you should be able to rest both feet flat on the 
floor, your knees slightly lower than your hips, without 
resting the thighs heavily on the front of the chair seat. 
You should sit well back in the seat so that your back lightly 
touches the back of the chair. At the desk, the front edge 
of the seat should underlap the edge of the desk not more 
than an inch. The desk should be at the height of your 
elbow as you sit up straight. If your seat and desk at school 
are adjustable, have them adjusted to fit you. At home 
try to find a chair that is your size and use it. 

In sitting and standing and walking hold the body and 
head erect, but avoid a strained attitude. A good way to 
































182 


BONE AND MUSCLE 


get the correct posture is to imagine you are holding a 
weight on your chest; then try to react against this weight 
and to feel yourself strong enough to hold up a very heavy 
weight. Keep the abdomen well back. This will give 



Figure 93. — Hygienic Desks. 


These chair desks are made in several sizes so that each pupil can be 
fitted with a desk that will enable him to maintain a good posture. Notice, 
too, that the floor is clean, as it rarely is under a desk that is fastened down. 

you a good carriage which, though at first it may seem forced 
and awkward, will soon become easy, natural, graceful, and 
dignified. 

Why is a boy or girl who stands up well more pleasing to see 
than one who stoops? How does a bent posture interfere with 
our organic activities? Explain how the attitude of the body 
affects the character. How high should your chair and your desk 
be ? Describe a good position in sitting. What suggestion for 
the carriage of the body will help to make your posture healthful 
and pleasing? 





JOINTS 


183 


(The teacher should not be content when the pupil has only 
learned to recite this lesson on posture. He should insist that the 
pupil bear himself in the correct attitude until it becomes a habit.) 

Joints. — The joints are the most vulnerable parts of 
the skeleton. Injury to them is serious because it may in¬ 
terfere with their freedom of movement. If the two bones 



Figure 94. — A Good Bearing. 

In which picture does the girl have the best carriage ? In what ways is 
it better than the others ? 

at the joint are slipped out of their normal bearings on each 
other, the injury is called a dislocation. When the cartilage 
is bruised or the ligaments are torn, the injury is painful and 
is called a sprain. Dislocations commonly produce sprains. 
The joint swells and is tender for several days. If no bac¬ 
terial infection occurs the injury heals without serious re¬ 
sults. It should have a physician’s care if it is bad, lest 



















































184 


BONE AND MUSCLE 


improper treatment result in permanent stiffness. Swell¬ 
ing can be reduced and pain relieved by wet bandages as 
hot as can be borne, changed three or four times an hour. 
A sprain should be bandaged and kept quiet that the injured 
tissue may have a chance to heal. 

The synovial membrane, which forms a closed sac lining 
the joint cavity, is a tough tissue with a smooth surface. 



Figure 95. — How to Lean Forward. 

Sit well back in the chair and lean forward from the hips. 

It secretes a small quantity of synovial fluid which keeps 
the joint surface always slippery. Injuries to the joint 
sometimes cause a large secretion of this fluid till the syno¬ 
vial sac is distended with it, as in the case of “ water on the 
knee.” 

Infections of the tonsils, of nasal sinuses or abscesses at 
the roots of the teeth are likely to result in pain and swelling 
of the joints (arthritis) even in distant parts of the body. 













A BROKEN BONE 


185 


The germs or their toxins are carried from the point of in¬ 
fection by the blood. Pulling the abscessed tooth, and 
draining the cavity if necessary, removing the tonsils, or 
draining the sinus usually 
relieves the arthritis. 

Rheumatism is an infec¬ 
tion of the joints or 
muscles with swelling and 
usually great pain in move¬ 
ment. It often develops 
from tonsil or tooth infec¬ 
tions. 

What is a dislocation? 

What is a sprain ? How can 
the pain and swelling of a 
sprain be relieved? Why is 
a sprain bandaged and kept 
quiet? Why should a sur¬ 
geon be called to take care of 
a severe sprain? 

What keeps the joint lubri¬ 
cated? What is “water on 
the knee”? Figure 96. — Section through the 

What is arthritis? What Knee J oint ' 

causes it? How is it com- The tendon running upward from the 
monly relieved? What is patella extends to a large muscle in the 
rheumatism? front of the thigh. The irregular black 

A Broken B o n e . — I n area re P resents the 3 J' novial sao - 

... . .. 1. On the end of what bone does the 

case of a broken bone the patella slide when you bend the knee f 
Surgeon should be called 2 . What bones does the ligament bind 
as soon as possible, and together? 

the bone kept perfectly 3. What is the name of the tissue which 
Still until he takes it in covers the bones at their ends ? 
charge. He first fits the broken ends together, and then 
keeps them bound in place while the fracture heals. Usu¬ 
ally splints are applied on the outside of the limb, or a 
plaster of Paris cast is made. To hold the bones more 
securely the surgeon sometimes cuts down to the bone and 





186 


BONE AND MUSCLE 



fastens a metal plate across the break, holding it with screws 
set in the bone. 

If the tissue around the break is much swollen, the sur¬ 
geon has difficulty in feeling the ends of the bone and know¬ 
ing when they are per¬ 
fectly matched; hence 
the imperfect result 
sometimes obtained. The 
X-ray and the fluoro- 
scope are great aids in 
modern bone surgery. 
They show just how the 
bone lies. If the doctor 
sees the ends of the bone 
are not perfectly matched 
together he can try again. 

The patient’s care is to 
keep the limb quiet till 
the bone is firmly healed. 
After the swelling goes 
down and the pain ceases 
the patient may think the 
injury is healed. If he 
starts to use the limb too 
soon, he is likely to bend 
it at the break and delay 
its healing. 

The process of healing is as follows: There is a tough 
membrane ( periosteum ) covering the bone everywhere ex¬ 
cept at the joint. When the broken bone is set, the cells 
of this membrane multiply and fill all the little spaces be¬ 
tween the broken ends, a live cement. But it is a soft ce¬ 
ment easily broken. These periosteum cells in time deposit 
around themselves the gristly and the stony intercellular 
material of the bone and thus become bone cells. When 


Figure 97 . — Both Legs Broken. 

If the breaks are left to heal as they are 
how will they affect the lengths of the 
bones ? 




BONE INFECTIONS 


187 


the deposit is complete, after several weeks, the bone is as 
strong as ever. The danger lies in using it too soon, before 
the stony deposit is complete. 

While waiting for the doctor what should we do with a broken 
bone? What does the doctor do in “ setting ” a broken bone? 
Why does he use splints? What is the periosteum? How does a 
bone heal? What danger is there in using a broken limb too soon 
after it seems healed? Is it ready for use as soon as the pain has 
ceased and the swelling disappears? 

Bone Infections. — Sometimes pus-forming bacteria get 
under the periosteum and form an abscess called a felon. 
The pain and swelling of a felon is extreme. This injury 
is most common at the end of a finger or thumb. It is sup¬ 
posed to come where the membrane is injured by a bruise. 
If let alone the germs may work into the bone and destroy 
considerable of it before they finally break out through the 
membrane and skin. This results in a deformed finger. 
A felon should be cut to the bone when it first appears, be¬ 
fore it has time to become extremely painful and to injure 
the bone. If it is promptly opened it drains and heals 
quickly and leaves the finger unimpaired. 

Tuberculosis and leprosy are well-known diseases whose 
germs destroy bone. For centuries leprosy has been con¬ 
sidered incurable and has been regarded with the utmost 
horror. At last a drug has been discovered which seems 
to cure it. Tuberculous spots are removed from bone by 
surgical operation. But the best procedure with these in¬ 
fectious diseases is prevention. As individuals we can to 
considerable degree avoid their germs, but it is always pos¬ 
sible that the germs will reach us through unknown chan¬ 
nels. We need the cooperation of government in a campaign 
to exterminate the germs. 

What is a felon? How serious an injury does it often produce? 
What should be done with it? Name some diseases that destroy 
bone. How can they be cured ? What is better than cure ? Why 
must the aid of government be invoked in this work ? 


CHAPTER XII 

THE NERVE SYSTEM 


He that wrestles with us strengthens our nerves and sharpens 
our sJcill. 


Edmund Burke. 


The body itself cares for the nerve system as though it 
recognized the vital importance of that structure in the body 
economy. The great centers of the system, the brain and 
spinal cord, are encased in a bony covering which gives them 
better protection than any other organ of the body has. 
When the body is short of food the fat disappears, the mus¬ 
cles waste away, and their substance goes to feed the nerve 
centers, which must be sustained at all cost. In our volun¬ 
tary activities also we should do well to follow the example 
of the automatic forces and take especial care of the ruler 
of the body. 

How the Brain Controls the Body. — The nerve system 
may be likened to a telephone exchange, with the brain for 
“ central ” office. (1) From your home you may call cen¬ 
tral, or (2) the operator may call you, or (3) you may call 
a friend by connection through the central office. Just so 
(1) messages may come to the brain from any part of the 
body, (2) the brain may originate and send out messages 
to any part of the body, or (3) a current from some part 
of the body to the brain may be reflected out to some other 
part. The central station or switch board of this nerve 
telephone system is composed of the ganglion cells which 
are situated in the gray matter, a comparatively thin layer 
at the surface of the brain. 


188 




HOW THE BRAIN CONTROLS THE BODY 189 

This gray matter, as a governing center , is divided up into 
many small areas, each of which is connected by nerve 
threads (axons) with its own particular part of the body. 
To illustrate, a certain spot at the top of the brain is con¬ 
nected with the muscles that move the thumb. When we 
wish to bend the thumb some of the cells of this spot send 



Figure 98. — Functional Areas of the Cerebrum. 

The words vision, hearing, speech, etc., show the part of the brain which 
acts when we see, when we hear, when we speak, etc. 

nerve currents over their axons to the muscles of the thumb 
and cause them to contract. So every muscle of the body 
which can be moved voluntarily is connected with its own 
special area in the cer'ebrum and moves when it receives 
orders from the ganglion cells of this area. 

The gray matter of the brain, as a receiving center for the 
sense organs, is likewise divided up into areas. One of these 
receives currents from the eye, another from the ear, another 
from the nose, and so on. Each small spot in the skin has 
its own receiving station in the cerebrum to which it sends 














190 


THE NERVE SYSTEM 


currents when it is touched or when it receives a warm or a 
cool impression. For example, when you touch a hot cup 
of cocoa the skin which comes in contact with the cup sends a 
nerve current up through the arm and cord to its own par¬ 
ticular area in the brain. When the current reaches the 
cerebrum you feel the warmth of the cup. 

The entire distance from the brain to the hands or feet 
is not spanned by a single axon. The current is “ relayed ” 
in the spinal cord. If the current is from the cerebrum to 
a muscle in the hand, the first axon reaches from the brain 
to the spinal cord at the height of the shoulder. There it 
joins a cell in the cord whose axon extends to the muscle. 
So also a current in the opposite direction is relayed in the 
cord. One long nerve thread reaches from the finger to the 
cord, where it joins a cell whose axon extends to the cere¬ 
brum or to still another cell which relays the current on to 
the brain. Currents from sense organs in the head go either 
directly to the brain or to small ganglia and thence to the 
brain. 

In voluntary movements of the trunk and limbs the nerve 
currents start in the cerebrum and go down the spinal cord 
till they reach the battery of cells which immediately con¬ 
trol the muscle to be moved. This battery is thus stimu¬ 
lated to action and sends into the muscle the current which 
results in the motion. 

In involuntary contractions of muscles the batteries of 
cells which immediately control these muscles are set off 
by currents originating in sources other than the cerebrum. 
Sometimes a current caused by some outside stimulus starts 
in the skin, goes to receiving cells in the cord, and then im¬ 
mediately to the muscle-moving cells. The resulting move¬ 
ment of the muscle is called a simple reflex action, — in con¬ 
trast to the voluntary action caused by a cerebral current. 
To illustrate, when the foot of a sleeping person is touched 
the nerve current goes from the skin to the cord and thence 


NARCOTICS AND STIMULANTS 


191 


to the muscle which moves the foot, and the brain is not 
involved. A reflex action may occur in the head, as when an 
object moves suddenly toward the eye the lids are closed 
by means of a current which goes into and reflects from a 
minor ganglion, not from the cerebrum. 

Though the automatic activities of the body, such as the- 
workings of the heart and blood vessels, the stomach and 
intestines, and the secretions of the glands, are directly 
under the control of the small autonomic centers, these are 
connected with the spinal cord and with the brain. The 
whole nerve system is one and by its rule brings the activi¬ 
ties of the body into harmony. 

An interesting example of the influence of the cerebrum 
on the automatic activities is seen in the simple act of lick¬ 
ing a postage stamp to put on your letter. The salivary 
glands are automatic, that is, outside the control of the will; 
but when you think a moment about licking the stamp, nerve 
currents from the cerebrum go to the lower centers and 
through their action produce a large flow of saliva to wet 
the gum on the stamp. 

In what two ways does the body take care of the nervous sys¬ 
tem? In what two capacities does the gray matter of the brain 
act? How is its area divided for both purposes? What is an 
axon? What do we mean when we say that a nerve current from 
the cerebrum is relayed in the spinal cord? Explain how the auto¬ 
matic activities of the body are harmonized with the other activi¬ 
ties. 

Narcotics and Stimulants. — Without being aware of the 
injury we are doing, most of us abuse our nerve system by 
the use of stimulants and narcotics. The nerve system, 
more than other organs of the body, feels the effects 
of these drugs. The control of the body at its best is a diffi¬ 
cult job, requiring the most delicate adjustments of blood 
supply, of gland secretions, and of muscular contractions. 
The brain and minor ganglia usually get along fairly well 
when allowed to function normally. But we come along 


192 


THE NERVE SYSTEM 


with tea and coffee, alcohol, tobacco, and worse drugs and 
upset the fine adjustments. The enduring nerve cells make 
up for our stupidity by resuming their natural activities 
as soon as the drug is removed, unless they are too badly 
injured. 

The effects of tea, coffee, alcohol, and tobacco, used in 
moderation , are revealed by scientific tests, but are not 
noticeable to a casual observer. Therefore, these enemies 
of our nerve system are not condemned in the court of public 
opinion as they deserve to be. 

The excessive use of narcotics works havoc with both the 
brain and the autonomic centers. When the brain cells 
of the drunkard are thoroughly ruined by alcohol he is likely 
to die of delirium tremens. The muscle-controlling centers 
of the inveterate smoker are so deadened by nicotine that 
his hand is in constant tremor. Worst of all, are the nar¬ 
cotics (alcohol, opium, etc.) whose inordinate use deranges 
the thinking function so that the mind is temporarily crazed 
or goes permanently insane. 

What tissue suffers most from stimulants and narcotics? What 
activities are deranged by poisoning their ruler? Do the brain 
cells usually recover if the use of the drug is stopped? Why do 
we tolerate a moderate use of habit-forming drugs? What is 
delirium tremens? How does the excessive use of tobacco affect 
the brain’s control of muscles? What is a common cause of in¬ 
sanity ? 

Infections. — Though the nerve system is much less open 
to the invasion of disease germs than are the digestive tract 
and the organs of respiration, it is in serious danger when 
it is attacked. The nerves of smell come to the surface of 
the mucous membrane in the nose. They furnish a short 
passageway from the upper part of the nose to the brain. 
Germs which are able to use this route can penetrate the 
brain chamber and grow in the membranes (meninges) 
covering the brain, producing brain fever or meningitis. 
(“ Brain fever ” does not come from over-working the brain. 


FOOD INSUFFICIENCY 


193 


Do not be afraid of hard study.) The germ growth causing 
meningitis easily extends down the spinal cord, whose 
meninges are continuous with those of the brain, and pro¬ 
duces spinal meningi'tis. The germs of infantile paralysis 
also are thought to invade the brain chamber by way of the 
nerves of smell. 

Transmission of the germs of these diseases does not seem 
to be very easy, yet we should observe the general rule for 
infectious diseases, isolation of the sick and disinfection of 
the things used in the sick room. 

Paralysis is a loss of the power of motion or of sensation. 
Sometimes only a small part of the body is affected, often 
an arm or a leg on one side or both sides of the body. Its 
cause may be an injury by accident, or disease germs; in 
some cases it is unknown. Recovery is possible in many 
cases. 

Neural’gia is an ache, more or less continuous and often 
excruciating, commonly in the nerves of the face. It is 
often caused by bacterial toxins, — it may be a tooth ab¬ 
scess or tonsil infection. If the source of the infection can 
be found, the trouble can usually be relieved. 

By what avenue do germs invade the brain chamber? What 
is meningitis? Germs of what other disease are thought to enter 
along the nerves of smell? What general precautions should be 
taken to prevent the spread of these diseases? What is paralysis? 
How is it caused? What is neuralgia? What is its usual cause? 

Food Insufficiency. — Though the brain endures starva¬ 
tion while muscles waste away, it is affected by even a slight 
insufficiency of food. The adult brain does not function 
at its best, does not recover rapidly from wear except when 
it is abundantly supplied with food. The child brain does 
not grow normally when deficiently nourished. The brain 
uses the same kinds of food that the other tissues use, 
sugar, fat, and protein with small quantities of the mineral 
salts. Though some elements are found in the brain in 


194 


THE NERVE SYSTEM 


slightly larger proportion than in other tissues, that does 
not need to be considered in choosing our food. 

The “ brain foods ” are fakes. Their supposed superior¬ 
ity is pure imagination or unsupported tradition. If one 
has plenty of food, about one sixth protein and the necessary 
small quantity of vitamines, his brain, as well as other or¬ 
gans, will get what it needs. 

But the most deplorable fact is that the nerve systems 
of tens of thousands of children of our land are not develop¬ 
ing to their full because of the lack of nourishment. When 
these children grow up their brains will be unable to con¬ 
trol perfectly their activities. They will get less out of life 
and be less valuable members of the community because 
they now lack food. It is our business as individuals and 
as an organized government to remedy this evil. 

How does insufficiency of food affect the adult brain? How 
does it affect the child’s brain? What food does the brain need? 
Why does the Board of Education in some cities supply lunch free 
to pupils who can not pay for it ? Why do we specify that much 
of our food donations to starving Europe shall go to the children? 

Sleep. — We know well that nature’s kind restorer, sleep, 
is a necessity to the nerve system. In physical work as 
well as in mental activity the brain is oxidized. At the end 
of a hard day s labor the brain cells look ragged and shrunk. 
During sleep they take food from the blood and build up 
new molecules in place of those burned up. In the morn¬ 
ing they are plump and smooth. The younger we are the 
more sleep we need. Precise figures can not be applied to 
all alike, yet we can say in general that elementary school 
children should have ten to twelve hours, high school pupils 
nine or more hours, adults seven to eight. The sleep should 
be quiet and undisturbed; therefore night is a better time 
for it than day. The less dreaming the better. 

If we live hygienically we are likely to sleep well. Hence, 
if we are not sleeping peacefully we should overhaul our 


BRAIN CURRENTS 


195 


method of living and see if we can make it more hygienic. 
Indigestion often disturbs sleep, as does a discomfort in any 
part of the body. 

If the brain is crowded with blood it is more likely to be 
active than when its blood supply is small. If the mind is 
so alert when we go to bed that we can not sleep, we may 
find rest by inducing the blood to flow in larger quantities 
to other organs. A light, easily digested lunch may call 
the blood to the stomach. A hot foot bath or a warm tub 
will bring the blood to the feet or skin. Gentle massage 
or light gymnastics or a dry rub will help to relieve the brain 
of blood. If hard mental work in the evening leaves the 
brain so congested that sleep does not come, it may be neces¬ 
sary to have only light occupation in the evening and save 
the heavy tasks for morning. 

Above all we should not resort to drugs to induce sleep. 
There are a number of narcotics which will benumb the 
brain cells and bring sleep. Although it is better than no 
sleep it is not so restful as natural sleep. Doctors have 
occasion to use these drugs when patients can not otherwise 
sleep, but we should leave their use to the physician. The 
drugs are insidious habit-formers; we should keep free from 
their clutches. 

What change in the brain cells does a day’s work produce? 
What effect on the cells is produced by sleep? How many hours 
should elementary school children sleep? How many hours should 
high school boys and girls sleep? How many hours should adults 
sleep? Why is it better to sleep at night than in the day time? 
Why should municipal governments check noises at night? Name 
several influences that disturb sleep. Name several devices that 
help to induce sleep, and explain how each works. Why is it bet¬ 
ter to do your hard lessons in the morning? What means of pro¬ 
ducing sleep should we avoid? 

Brain Currents. — For each thing we think or do there 
are nerve currents running through certain cells and fibers 
of the brain. The action is illustrated by Figure 99. When 


196 


THE NERVE SYSTEM 


a brain cell ( A ) oxidizes, it shoots a current out over its axon 
(a). The axon has several or many branches, each leading 
to another cell. The nerve current which is sent out over 
the axon spreads through the branches, but not with equal 
force in all. We will suppose it is stronger in (a) and weaker 

in ( x ). It may fade out 
altogether and produce 
no noticeable result. If 
the current is strong it 
will extend to another cell 
( B ), which it stimulates 
to oxidize (explode) with 
a resulting current to still 
another cell (C ),—and 
so the chain of explosions 
goes on, and we have cer¬ 
tain thoughts or muscu¬ 
lar actions, depending on 
just what cells are in¬ 
volved. 

A current from B to D 
would produce a result 
different from that caused 
by a current from B to C. 
Suppose M represents a 
muscle which moves one 
finger and M' a muscle 
which moves another finger. By willing to move the 
first finger, we direct the nerve current to M; and by will¬ 
ing to move the other finger, we direct the current to M'. 
The movement we will is obediently made. 

As it seems to us, we can direct the chain of explosions 
to an end we desire by thinking of the thing we wish— 
thinking not idly but in the way we call wilhto-do. We do 
not concern ourselves directly with the cell explosions and 



These brain cells illustrate the way in 
which nerve currents from a cell may be 
turned into different courses and produce 
different results. 


HABIT 


197 


nerve currents, but with the earnest effort to think or do. 
The details of the cell action conform themselves to the end 
we strive for. If we will to do, try hard enough to do, we 
can direct the nerve current successfully to the end we have 
in mind. 

What occurs in the brain when we think or act ? How are nerve 
currents caused ? Where do they go ? What becomes of the 
nerve current when the impulse that causes it is very weak ? When 
the impulse is strong ? How do we direct the course of nerve cur¬ 
rents ? 

Habit. — The first time a nerve current goes over a path 
to an end we determine, it goes with difficulty and only as 
we make an earnest endeavor. As we repeat the act the 
path becomes worn and the current is not likely to go off 
on any side branches, as it was at first. When the path be¬ 
comes so well worn that the current goes over it with ease 
we have established a habit. In Figure 99, for example, if 
we always use the first finger in a certain action the nerve 
current gets a path worn from B to C, and it will not branch 
off to D. 

Since things done by habit are easily done we can econo¬ 
mize energy by forming habits in doing what we have to do. 
We should first work out the best way of doing the things 
we have to do regularly, and do them this way till we get 
the habit. Then they almost do themselves, and we can 
give our attention to forming new habits. The more good 
habits we have the more efficient is our work. 

Bad habits are contracted in the same way that good 
habits are established, by repeated doing till nerve paths 
are worn in the brain. Bad habits are particularly harmful 
in that they are done so easily, without our attention, and 
are thus slyly making themselves stronger. To overcome a 
bad habit we must substitute a good habit in its place. 

To illustrate : When some one does something which irri¬ 
tates you your impulse is to speak sharply to him. If you 


198 


THE NERVE SYSTEM 


do so repeatedly you get the habit of impatient speech. To 
break the bad habit fix in your mind the determination to 
speak gently (though perhaps firmly) to the annoyer. Bring 
this determination repeatedly to your mind. Strengthen 
it by imaging the good results which will spring from such 
speech. If you hold this end persistently before you, the 
nerve currents will take the new course which will result in 
the desired act, and will in time wear such a path that cour¬ 
teous speech will be as easy as scolding formerly was. 

Our will-to-do must be on guard, and when the nerve 
currents which work out to the undesired end start, we must 
switch them to an end we want. We must hold before our¬ 
selves, and strive so hard to attain a substitute good action 
that the nerve current will be forced to abandon its old path 
and make a new one. If by constant striving we always 
hold the nerve current to the new path, the latter will soon 
become so worn that the current will follow it easily — and 
we have a good habit substituted for a bad one. 

How does the first passage of a nerve current over a path com¬ 
pare with its tenth passage over the same path? How are habits 
formed? What advantage is there in having routine work done 
by habit? Name half a dozen good things you do from habit, 
with hardly any attention. How are bad habits made stronger 
without attracting our attention? How can we correct a bad 
habit? Illustrate by naming several bad habits and the good 
practices you would substitute for them. 

Some Good Habits. — A person who has a steady job gets 
the habit at a certain hour of settling down to work. He 
doesn’t need to summon up any determination to get himself 
started. He gets busy without any special thought or the 
expenditure of much energy, — an economical proceeding. 

Your school tasks should be managed in some such way. 
Have certain times for study. When the time arrives settle 
down to work. Don’t let yourself think of anything but your 
lesson. At first it will be somewhat difficult, but soon you will 
get the habit and be surprised to find how easy it is to study. 


EDUCATION 


199 


After work we need rest, sleep, recreation. The times 
for them should be observed and not lightly broken up. We 
are in especial danger of falling into bad habits during the 
recreation time. We do whatever we just happen to do, 
thinking that it is quite proper to spend leisure time so. 
Often we get to doing wasteful or harmful things. Our 
recreation ought to be restful and enjoyable, but it should 
at the same time enrich our lives. We should plan to do 
something worth while in our recreation hours, to have some 
hobby which we can trot out and ride as a recreation habit. 

Our mental states have a tremendous influence over our 
health. We should take an inventory of ourselves and see 
that our habitual states are those that conduce to good 
health. If we find that we repeatedly worry, or are irascible, 
or are jealous, or become angry, or nurse grudges, or enter¬ 
tain fears, we know that we have some bad habits to break — 
habits which will probably in time ruin our digestion and 
undermine our health. We must break up the bad habits 
by substituting in their places good cheer, a placid spirit, 
confidence, friendliness, generosity, courage. We must hold 
these healthful states of mind so much before us that they 
become our habits. 

Explain the economy of having a regular habit of work. What 
would be your best plan for study? Why is it important that we 
carefully plan our recreational habits? Explain how our health 
can be promoted by our cultivating desirable states of mind. 

Education. — A large part of education consists in es¬ 
tablishing good habits. No one can educate you; you must 
educate yourself by your own activity. You make the paths 
in your brain. If you leave the matter to chance, paths 
to undesired ends are likely to form; and once formed, they 
are difficult to change. A very large part of our school work 
consists in breaking bad habits — the more reason for tak¬ 
ing pains to form good habits in the beginning. The work 
of the teacher is to help you find and plan lines of activity 


200 


THE NERVE SYSTEM 



within your powers, to guide you in your practice that your 
good habits may become securely established, and by pre¬ 
cept and example to help you distinguish good habits from 
such as are bad so that your aim may be true. 


Figure 100. — A Bird Haunt. 

A restful recreation for jaded nerves is a stroll through such a dell as 
this, getting acquainted with the shy birds and storing the mind with beau¬ 
tiful scenes whose memory will gladden many moments of recollection. 

Why must your education be the result of your own activity? 
Why is it important that one’s early education be carefully di¬ 
rected? Why does the-character of a pupil’s work the first month 
of the semester indicate what it will be later? How can teachers 
help you educate yourself ? 

Overwork. — We hear a great deal about people who 
break down from overwork, especially mental work. There 
is a degree of truth in the phrase, but it directs the atten¬ 
tion to the wrong place and so is misleading. People who 
do heavy mental work, in office or shop or school, often 
deteriorate in health, not so much because of the quantity 
of work they do as because they fail to provide hygienic 









OVERWORK 


201 


conditions of living. They worry, ruin their digestion, use 
stimulants and narcotics, neglect exercise, become consti¬ 
pated or infested with germs, lack fresh air and sufficient 
sleep, cramp themselves at a desk — and then think they 
overwork. They could do a great deal more work and carry 
it off well if they took proper care of their health. Our 
greatest workers have been men of good health. 

If one has an unusually heavy job ahead of him he should 
set aside a reasonable time for sleep in fresh air, an hour or 
so for vigorous exercise in the open, provide nourishing 
meals — and then tackle his work with no fear of overdoing. 
Men doing heavy physical work are really worn out in brain 
and muscle by their toil if they drive themselves too hard, 
just as horses are, but mental workers rarely. 

Yet the latter have great need of caution in this high- 
strung nervous age, when every force of society seems to 
push and pull and urge them to a faster pace. Their cau¬ 
tion should be, however, not so much to limit their work 
as to increase the care of their health. The chief reason 
they neglect their health under the stress of work is that 
they lack a proper judgment of values. Work is a means 
to ends. It provides us with things we need for our develop¬ 
ment into better men and women. If we keep before us 
an adequate ideal of man and of woman, a well-poised mind, 
and a perfectly functioning body, we shall be less tempted 
to abuse the end in our concern for the means. 

What is the chief reason why mental workers break down? If 
one has an unusually hard job ahead what care should he take to 
meet the strain? If you have an examination coming should you 
sit up till twelve or one o’clock preparing for it, or should you go 
to bed early? If you have two examinations in one day should 
you play tennis between them, or go to the library and study for 
the second ? What kind of work puts a man in the discard in mid¬ 
dle life? What caution is needed especially by those who do hard 
mental work? How can a proper valuation of the spiritual fac¬ 
tors of life help one carry his work better? 


CHAPTER XIII 


EYES AND EARS 


The ear is the avenue to the heart. 

— Voltaire. 


The eyes and ears are the most important sentries of the 
body, which bring us most of the information of the world 
about us. They need especial care, and therefore have a 
chapter to themselves. 


The Eye 



Like a Camera. — In its working the eye resembles a 
camera in many ways. At the front of a camera is a lens, 
which receives the rays of light from the object to be photo¬ 
graphed and bends 
these rays so that 
they meet in a small 
image on a plate or 
film at the back of 
the camera box. 
If the object to 
be photographed is 
close at hand, it ap¬ 
pears larger and 
the rays of light from it come widespread to the lens. 
These widespread rays are bent by the lens to form an 
image far back of the lens. 

If the object to be photographed is far away, it appears 
smaller and the rays of light from it are more nearly parallel. 

202 


Figure 101. — Diagram of a Camera. 

B - C is the box ; E is the plate or film ; L 
the lens; D, the diaphragm. 


L, 












LIKE A CAMERA 


203 


These rays are bent to form an image at a shorter distance 
back of the lens. When the plate or film to receive the 
picture is at the right distance behind the lens to receive the 
image, the camera is said to be in focus. Thus the lens is 
moved farther away from the plate or nearer to it, accord¬ 
ing to the distance of the object to be pictured. 



Bone Muscleforiihing Lid 


Vitreous Humor 


Superior M u sc it 
Brain 


•Muscle for. ' 

closing Eye 

Upper LitL^. 


Aqueous' Humor 


Cornea - 
Lower Lid 


jjr i Optic Nerve- 
Inferior Muscle 


Muscle for closing Ey 


Cheek Bone 


Figure 102. — The Eye in Its Socket. 


1. Where is the muscle situated which lifts the upper lid? 

2. Where are the muscles situated which turn the eyeball up (superior) 
or down (inferior) ? 

3. What kind of tissue is packed around and behind the eyeball ? 

4. From what part of the eye does the optic nerve extend ? 

5. Name in order the transparent substances of the eye through which 
the light goes from between the lids to the retina. 

* The light that enters the camera fixes the image on the 
sensitive plate or film. If too little light enters, it will not 
act to form a clear image on the plate. If too much light 
enters, it will act too strongly on the plate and spoil the 
picture. For this reason the camera has a diaphragm just 





204 


EYES AND EARS 


behind or just in front of the lens with which to regulate the 
size of the opening to admit light. 

Structure and Action of the Eye. — In the eye, the cornea 
and lens together act like the lens of the camera to bring 
the rays to a focus on the retina. The retina corresponds to 



Figure 103. — Changing the Focus. 

The upper figure shows the rays of light from a distant object brought 
to focus on the retina. In the lower figure the object is nearer and there¬ 
fore the rays diverge more. To bring the rays to a focus on the retina the 
lens becomes more convex. This work is done by the contraction of the 
tiny ciliary muscles around the rim of the lens. 

the camera plate. The eyeball can not lengthen and shorten 
like the camera in focusing. But the same thing is ac¬ 
complished by changes in the shape of the lens. It is elastic 
and can be made more or less curved by a set of tiny muscles 
around its margin. When we look at an object near by, these 
muscles contract and make the lens thicker. When we look 
at a distant object, the muscles relax and the lens flattens. 

The i'ris, corresponding to the diaphragm of the camera, 
is a dark curtain through which an opening, the pupil, ad- 



ADJUSTMENT TO LIGHT 


205 


mits the light. Muscles in the iris regulate the size of the 
pupil, making it smaller when the light is bright and larger 
when the light is faint. The retina contains the end of the 
optic nerve. When rays of light form an image on the 
retina, nerve currents are sent to the brain — and we see. 

What is the use of the lens in a camera? Explain what is meant 
by focusing a camera. How is the amount of light that enters 
a camera regulated? In what respects is the eye like a camera? 
In what important respect does it work differently? Why does it 
tire one more to look at objects two feet away than at objects in 
the distance ? What causes us to see ? 

Adjustment to Light. — The eye is able to adjust itself 
only imperfectly to the quantity of light which enters. On 
a bright day or when the clear sun is reflected from snow or 
water, the iris is not able to shut out the intense rays; we 
squint and bring the lids close together to help. Even then 
the light seems almost painful and dazzles us. People in 
the polar regions or those climbing high mountains, where the 
sun is very bright and is reflected from a snow surface, wear 
amber goggles to protect their eyes. If they omit this pre¬ 
caution they are likely to become blind for a few days and 
suffer excruciating pain. 

In a faint light the pupil of the eye must open wide to 
admit light sufficient to start a nerve current in the retina. 
If we try to read or do fine work when the light is inadequate 
we strain and tire the eyes. We should always choose steady 
light of medium intensity. A diffused light from nearly over¬ 
head is good. 

For writing, the light should come from the left side in 
preference to the right, to avoid the shadow of the hand and 

pen. 

In reading always observe the following precautions: 
1. Have a steady light bright enough to enable you to see 
clearly what you are looking at, yet not so bright as to daz¬ 
zle. 2. Have the light above or at the side so that it does 


206 


EYES AND EARS 


not shine in the face or reflect from the book to the eyes. 
3. Hold the book steady at a distance of from twelve to 
twenty inches from the face. 4. Keep the page nearly 
perpendicular to the line from the eyes. 5. Rest the eyes 
every few minutes, by closing the lids or by looking up from 
the page. 

Give an illustration of the eye’s inability to control adequately 
the quantity of light which enters it. How can we artificially 
compensate for this imperfection ? What is snow-blindness ? 
How are we likely to injure the eyes in insufficient light ? Why does 
a north window give a better light for reading or working than a 
south window ? Why should one not face the light when reading 
or working? Which is better for lighting the room, low windows or 
high windows? Side windows or skylight? Would your desk 
be as well lighted if it faced in the opposite direction? Give the 
reasons. 

Give five cautions to be observed in reading. Why is reading 
on a car an unusual strain on the eyes ? Which of the four cautions 
are you likely to violate by reading while lying down ? 

Astig'matism. — Although you are filled with amazement 
when you consider how wonderfully the eye is adapted to 
take care of itself and do its work, you nevertheless recog¬ 
nize the fact that as an optical instrument it is not perfect. 
A defect from which the eyes of many people suffer is astig¬ 
matism. That means, the cornea or lens has such an imper¬ 
fect curve that the rays of light coming through are not all 
exactly focused on the retina. While some rays are focused 
and give a clear image, rays coming through another part 
of the lens do not focus but give a blurred image. 

An ingenious teacher has suggested the following method 
of testing the eyes for astigmatism: Look at the face of a 
watch or clock. If all the hour figures are equally clear, you 
are free from astigmatism. If some are clear while others 
are blurred, your eyes are astigmatic. Each eye should be 
tested separately. Keep both eyes open, but hold a card 
before one while you test the other. If you are nearsighted 


DEFECTS OF FOCUS 


207 


or far-sighted you would not be able to distinguish the as¬ 
tigmatism from the other defect. In such case, the test is 
of little practical value. 

If your eyes are sufficiently astigmatic to interfere with 
fair vision, or to give you discomfort or headache, you should 
go to an oculist and have them carefully examined to see 
just what the trouble is and what should be done for it. If 



Figure 104. — Near-sighted Vision. 


A. Rays from object 0 focus before they reach the retina. From O' the 
rays would focus on the retina. 

B. The glasses cause the rays from 0 to spread as though they came 
from O' and thus they focus on the retina. 

the doctor gives you a prescription for glasses take it to an 
optician and have the glasses made, and then wear them. 
Don’t try on several pairs of glasses at some cheap store and 
then buy the pair that seems to fit you best. They will 
probably not be well adapted to your needs, and may injure 
your eyes. 

What is meant by astigmatism? How can you detect it? How 
may a bad case affect a person otherwise than by impairing vision ? 
What should be done if vision is imperfect? What is an oculist? 
What is an optician? Why not select your glasses at a depart¬ 
ment store by trying them on ? 

Defects of Focus. — If the lens and its distance from the 
back of the eye were perfectly adjusted to each other, the 






208 


EYES AND EARS 


lens would always be able to focus the light on the retina 
and we should have good vision for objects at all distances. 
But this adjustment is frequently defective so that we are 
unable to see clearly. In near-sightedness, objects beyond 
a short distance are not clearly visible; and in far-sighted¬ 
ness, objects close to us can not be readily seen. There are 
all stages of these defects. To some near-sighted eyes every- 



Figure 105. — Far-sighted Vision. 

A. Rays from O focus behind the retina. From O' the rays would focus 
on the retina. 

B. The glasses cause the rays from 0 to bend as though they came from 
O' and thus they focus on the retina. 

thing beyond three or four inches from the eye is blurred. 
Other near-sighted eyes can see well things within reach of 
the hand, but do not see clearly small things across the room. 
Far-sighted eyes can not see to read a book held in the hand, 
but can focus perfectly on objects across the room and far¬ 
ther away. 

In near-sighted vision the rays of light from an object are 
brought to a focus before they reach the retina, so that when 
they strike the retina they have passed the point of focusing 
and have spread out again so as to blur the image. To cor¬ 
rect this fault concave glasses, thick at the rim and thin in 
the middle, are worn. They spread the rays entering the 




DISEASE GERMS IN THE EYE 


209 


eye and cause the lens of the eye to form the image back 
far enough to fall directly on the retina. 

In far-sight the focus is behind the retina, since the lens 
is not curved enough for the length of the eye. Convex 
glasses, thick in the middle and thin at the rim, are worn 
to make the rays entering the eye spread less and so bring 
the focus nearer. When the oculist tests the eyes he com¬ 
monly finds astigmatism associated with near-sightedness 
or far-sightedness and has one pair of glasses made to cor¬ 
rect both defects. 

If you have difficulty in reading across the room what is 
written on the blackboard, or in reading your book held at 
arm’s length, you should suspect you are near-sighted and 
should consult an oculist. Far-sight is not so easily recog¬ 
nized. If it tires you or makes your head ache to read, or 
if you can read more easily a book at arm’s length than at 
fifteen inches from your eyes you should suspect your eyes 
are far-sighted and need the doctor’s attention. It is not 
possible for you to find out by yourself just what is the mat¬ 
ter with your eyes. If you suspect that something is wrong 
with them you should go to an oculist and have him make 
the test. Then you should follow his directions in taking 
care of them. 

What condition of the eye is the cause of near-sightedness? 
of far-sightedness ? What symptoms should make one suspect that 
he is near-sighted ? What would make one think he is far-sighted ? 
In either case what should be done? How do near-sight glasses 
differ from far-sight glasses? 

Disease Germs in the Eye. — Germs which produce pus 
are common on our skin and in dust. They frequently get 
into the eye and grow, producing “ matter ” which inter¬ 
feres a little with our clear vision and collects in the cor¬ 
ners of the eye, especially the inner corner. We rub it out 
as thick liquid or dried grains. In the morning the fids are 
sometimes stuck shut by the dried pus. We should keep 


210 


EYES AND EARS 


the pus germs out as much as possible. Avoid rubbing the 
eyes with the fingers. When the eyes contain pus they 
should be washed out with boric acid, which should be ap¬ 
plied with a clean dropper or absorbent cotton. 

Babies at birth may have germs in their eyes that will 
penetrate the eyeball, making it sore and destroying sight. 
If the doctor washes the eyes immediately with a strong 
antiseptic, usually silver nitrate, he can kill the germs and 
save the eyes. A large per cent of the blind people owe their 
blindness to neglect at birth. At the least sign of pus in 
a baby’s eyes the doctor should be called to treat it. 

Tracho'ma (granular lids) is a disease which causes a 
great deal of blindness in some countries. It has quite a 
foothold in some of our southern states. A case in the early 
stage can usually be quickly cured. Ignorant and poor 
people are likely to neglect it and go blind. 

A sty is a pustule, like a pimple on the face, in an oil gland 
of the eyelid. It should be opened, the pus wiped off and 
destroyed, and the eye washed with boric acid. 

What can we do to keep pus germs out of the eyes ? How can 
we notice pus in the eye? What should we do to get it out? What 
is the common cause of blindness in babies ? What should be done 
to prevent it? What germ produces a great deal of blindness in 
some localities? What should be done with a sty? 

Care of the Eye. — One of the things we should all learn 
to do for the eye is to remove a grain of dust, or a cinder, 
carefully. Nature provides tears, secreted by a gland 
within the socket and above the eye near the outer corner, 
for washing over, the surface of the eye and carrying away 
the dust. The tears, flowing across the eye, drain into the 
nose through a little tube opening near the inner corner of 
the eye, and roll over the cheek only when produced too 
rapidly for the tube’s capacity. If a gritty particle will not 
wash out it must be wiped off or picked out. A piece of 
clean absorbent cotton is best for wiping the eye. If the 


THE EAR 


211 


intruder is under the lower lid, put your finger on the cheek 
bone near the eye and pull the lid down. Wipe the cotton 
gently over the eyeball and inner surface of the lid. 

The cinder is usually under the upper lid. With the 
thumb and finger seize the lashes and pull the lid out a lit¬ 
tle, while with the side of a pencil or match you press down 
on the back part of the lid. This turns it inside out and 
enables you to wipe the eyeball and lid with cotton. If the 
cinder does not come, it probably has a sharp edge which is 
driven into the tissue, and the doctor must remove it. 
While waiting for the physician keep the eye still and pro¬ 
tect it with a loose pad or bandage. Do not rub it! 

If the eyes become red and painful from too much use or 
from germ infection or from any other cause, it is wise to 
consult a doctor. You will be able to relieve the pain and 
congestion by lying down, closing the eyes and placing on 
them gently a wet cloth as hot as can be borne. Wring out 
the cloth every few minutes in hot water to keep it hot. 

How does nature remove dust from the eye? Why does most 
of the dust collect at the inner angle of the eye ? How would you 
remove a particle from under the lower lid? How from under 
the upper lid? How can you relieve congestion and pain in the 
eyes? 


The Ear 

The external part of the ear acts somewhat as a funnel 
to catch the vibrations of the air and direct them into the 
canal. At the end of the canal is the drum membrane, which 
is set in motion by the air vibrations. The vibrations of 
the drum membrane are communicated by a chain of three 
tiny bones across the air space of the middle ear to the in¬ 
ternal ear. This is a chamber, part of which is in the form 
of a snail shell, filled with a watery fluid in which are the 
ends of the auditory nerve fibers. When the fluid of the 
snail shell is set in vibration the auditory nerve fibers carry 


212 


EYES AND EARS 



nerve currents to the brain, — and we hear that which 
started the vibration of the air. 

There is very little attention to be given the ear compared 
with the eye. We do not* abuse it by using it too much or 
in faulty ways. We rarely damage it by thrusting objects 
in to clean it. Yet the rule never to pick the ear with any¬ 
thing smaller than your finger is a good one. The lining 


Figure 106. — A Section through the Ear. 

The auditory tube is split and spread open making it appear larger in 
diameter than it really is. What forms a bridge across the air space of the 
middle ear connecting the drum membrane with the internal ear ? 

membrane of the canal is easily scratched and irritated. 
The drum membrane may be punctured. A rag over the 
finger will clean the ear adequately, unless there is sufficient 
accumulation of wax to interfere with hearing. Then a 
physician should be asked to remove it. 

The chief damage to the ear is done by germs which come 
through the (Eustachian) auditory tube. Though there 





THE EAR 


213 


are cilia in the tube to sweep out mucus and germs, when 
we have a bad “ cold ” or influenza, measles, scarlet fever, 
tonsilitis or other throat infection some of the germs are 
likely to get up the tube to the middle ear. Here they grow 
and produce pus, which has difficulty in getting out of the 
tube because of the swollen lining membrane. The pus 
may break through the drum and escape by way of the 
outer canal, causing a running ear. This break may be 
harmless, or it may impair the hearing, depending on the 
size and position of the rupture. The doctor sometimes 
makes a harmless puncture through the drum membrane 
to let out the pus and forestall an injurious break. 

The damage done by the pus in the middle ear may be 
slight or it may be beyond repair. The bones may be so 
injured that they can not transmit the vibrations, and deaf¬ 
ness may result. The pus may penetrate from the ear to 
the mastoid bone behind the ear. If it drains thence to the 
outside, the patient recovers. If it penetrates to the brain, 
death may result. Any serious trouble with the ear should 
have the immediate attention of a physician. The greatest 
danger lies in delay. 

We should do our best to avoid “ colds ” and all throat 
infections. Once we have an infection we should get rid 
of it as soon as possible lest it extend into the ear. The 
physician can do much to hasten recovery, but there is no 
specific cure. We have to depend on the germ-killing forces 
within the body and the power of the tissues to recover. 
The swelling and pain can be reduced by hot applications, — 
a hot flannel cloth, a hot water bag, an electric light held 
close to the ear. 

A running ear should be washed only according to the 
physician’s directions. A loosely fitting plug of cotton is 
kept in the ear to absorb the pus, is changed several times 
a day, and is destroyed when it is removed. 

Water in the ear does damage if it gets through a hole in 


214 


EYES AND EARS 


the drum membrane. It is well to wear rubber plugs in the 
ears when swimming and diving. 

How should one clean the ear? Why not use the head of a pin? 
Through what avenue is the ear commonly attacked? What is a 
running ear? Name several ways in which germs in the ear may 
do serious damage. How is mastoiditis produced ? Why does the 
surgeon advise operation? How can we reduce the pain of ear¬ 
ache? Why should the cotton plug from a running ear be burned 
or otherwise destroyed? Why is it advisable to wear rubber plugs 
in the ears when swimming ? 


CHAPTER XIV 


SOME COMMUNICABLE DISEASES 


Against diseases here the strongest fence 
Is that defensive virtue, abstinence. 

— Herrick. 


A great bacteriologist has said : “ We never really cure any 
disease; we only help the body to overcome it.” There 
seem to be some exceptions to this statement. There are 
chemicals, such as quinin for malaria, which are specific 
remedies for certain diseases. Yet in most cases the body’s 
own activity works the cure. 

Recovery from bacterial disease, such as diphtheria, results 
from one or both of the following things that occur in the 
body: 1, White corpuscles destroy the hostile bacteria; 
2, aw£i-substances formed by the cells, act against the invad¬ 
ing germs or counteract their poisons. These anti-substances, 
called anti-bodies , accumulate in the plasm of the blood and 
so are carried to all parts of the body. Although we can not 
show the presence of these anti-bodies by microscopic exami¬ 
nation or by chemical tests we know of their presence by 
their observed results. Some of them destroy the bacteria 
outright — cause them to disappear utterly. Others increase 
the activity arid germ-killing power of the white corpuscles. 
The antitoxins are anti-substances which neutralize the toxins 
or poisonous products of germ activity. 

Immunity from a disease by which we have been attacked 
is due to the fact that these anti-bodies persist in the body 
after the germs of the disease have been destroyed. They 

215 





216 


SOME COMMUNICABLE DISEASES 


persist for a very long time after an attack of smallpox and 
certain other diseases. In case of an ordinary “ cold,” 
the anti-bodies disappear in a very short time after the 
“ cold ” has been cured. 

Knowledge of these facts has enabled scientists to make 
great progress toward the brevention or cure of certain 
diseases. We should all understand what the ordinary 
citizen can do to aid in the crusade against preventable 
diseases, in order that we may take the best care of our own 
health and help most intelligently in conserving the health 
of the community. 

Smallpox. — For centuries smallpox was the scourge of 
the world. At intervals it would sweep over a nation killing 
tens of thousands of people and leaving more thousands 
pock-marked for life. As late as the last half of the 18th 
century, less than ten people in every hundred in England, 
France, and Italy escaped the scourge. One in every seven 
who contracted the disease died of it, and many of the 
survivors were left blind or deaf. The disease killed 60 
million people in Europe in the 18th century. 

Now its ravages have been thoroughly checked in the 
enlightened parts of the world, though ignorant peoples 
still suffer severely from it. The two chief factors which 
have freed us from the dread of this loathsome plague are 
quarantine and vaccination. 

Nearly everyone recognizes the desirability of keeping a 
patient that has any communicable disease away from other 
people. Yet quarantine, even though it is supplemented by 
the most strict measures of sanitation, is utterly inadequate 
to stem the sweep of this terrible scourge. Vaccination, 
when thoroughly practiced, does altogether check it. The 
reason why there are always a few cases of smallpox in a 
large community is that not all people are vaccinated. 
When everyone is vaccinated, the disease will be stamped 
out and there will be no need of subsequent vaccination. 


SMALLPOX 


217 


A single vaccination does not insure one for life. But if 
one is vaccinated when three or four years old (the time 
a child begins to run 
about and expose itself 
to contagion), again at 
twelve to fifteen years, 
and again in the twenties, 
one is practically sure 
never to have smallpox. 

Yet if a person is likely 
to be exposed to the dis¬ 
ease at any time, he would 
do well to be re-vacci¬ 
nated. Those who fall 
victims to the disease are 
the people who have never 
been successfully vacci¬ 
nated, or whose vaccination 
is old. A person who has 
been successfully vacci¬ 
nated at the intervals indi¬ 
cated above seldom takes 
the disease, or if he does 

Vaccination Protects. 

The graphs in Figure 107 indicate the number of people who died of small¬ 
pox for each million of the population — the continuous line in Prussia, the 
dotted line in Austria. An epidemic of smallpox swept Prussia in 1871 and 
1872, and Austria in 1872 to 1874. Both countries maintained the practice of 
vaccinating infants, which protected the young children and left only the older 
children and adults susceptible to the disease. In 1874 Prussia passed a 
law compelling all children of 12 years to be re-vaccinated. This almost 
at once reduced her smallpox deaths to a negligible number, while in Aus¬ 
tria, where re-vaccination was not compulsory, the deaths from smallpox 
continued numerous. Vaccination protects from smallpox but not for life. 
There should be a second vaccination at the age of 12 or 14 and a third at 
the age of 20 or 30. 















































































































218 


SOME COMMUNICABLE DISEASES 


take it, he* has a very light attack. He does not die 
of it. 

It was the observation of dairy workers in England in the 
18th century that people who had contracted cowpox, while 
milking cows, were immune from smallpox. Edward Jenner, 
a physician of Berkeley, England, made tests which proved 
the truth of this belief, and thus introduced vaccination. 

The virus with which we are vaccinated is obtained by 
vaccinating a healthy young cow with smallpox germs. 
The germs are weakened by growing in the cow’s body. 
The virus is taken from the vaccination spot in the cow’s 
skin and scratched into the skin of a person. The germs 
grow and produce in the person the disease of cowpox, iden¬ 
tical with smallpox but very much milder. The body pro¬ 
duces anti-bodies which counteract the disease and which 
persist to guard the body against smallpox for years after. 
If the virus is not fresh, the germs in it are likely to be dead 
and it will not take. In case vaccination fails, therefore, 
a second, or even a third attempt is advisable. If several 
attempts with fresh virus fail, the body is probably tempo¬ 
rarily immune to the disease. 

Whether to be vaccinated or not is no longer a question for 
debate. The danger from careful vaccination by a physician 
is so small that it need hardly be taken into account. Only 
virus from a healthy cow is used. The utmost care is taken 
to keep the virus free from harmful germs and to keep the spot 
on the skin free from contamination while it is fresh. It is 
only when such precautions are neglected that any trouble 
follows. The fact that millions of men in the army and 
navy have been vaccinated without a single disaster shows 
how safely the operation can be done. The evidence that 
vaccination does afford protection is so overwhelming that 
only those who do not know the facts or those whose prej¬ 
udice is so great that they refuse to see the facts, object to 
the operation. 


TYPHOID FEVER 


219 


There is little danger to-day from smallpox, but this con¬ 
dition is owing to the widespread practice of vaccination. 
Yet we may be exposed to a case any day in street cars or 
public gatherings. Some people argue that since there is 
little danger, they do not care to incur the slightest incon¬ 
venience. This is the selfish argument of one who is willing 
to profit by the service of others but who is unwilling to 
contribute anything to the common good. 

How does the body overcome disease? In what various ways 
do anti-bodies act? How does the body attain immunity against 
certain diseases. Name several countries in which you think there 
would naturally be little smallpox and others where you think it is 
probably common ? How serious trouble did it give before vaccina¬ 
tion was discovered and generally practiced? How has it been 
checked? How often should an individual be vaccinated? How 
was vaccination discovered? How is it practiced? What care 
must be used? What is the result of vaccination? Why should 
everyone be vaccinated ? 

Typhoid Fever. — Typhoid fever is another disease which 
can be thoroughly prevented by a means recently devised. 
We tried for many years to prevent the spread of typhoid 
by sanitary means only, and succeeded in considerably 
reducing the number of cases. 

The germs grow in the intestine and are consequently dis¬ 
charged chiefly from the bowels. The sewers become con¬ 
taminated, and from them drinking water is often polluted. 
Years of terrible experience taught us to take care of our 
water supply. Then we discovered that flies got the germs 
on their feet if they were allowed access to the sewage and 
brought the contamination to our food. So we learned to 
take better care of the sewage and to fight the flies. 

Now we find that many typhoid patients are not free 
from the germs when they get well. The germs get into the 
gall bladder or other nook and live for months or years, every 
day sending a delegation down the intestinal tract to spread 
the disease to others, Such a person is called a “ carrier,” 


220 


SOME COMMUNICABLE DISEASES 


He should take unusual pains to prevent the spread of the 
germs and should never handle the food of other people. 

Such sanitary precautions should never be relaxed, but 
they can not be perfect. Any of us may at any time get the 
germs into our intestines and suacumb to the disease. There 

is, however, a sure pre¬ 
vention, proved by mil¬ 
lions of treatments with 
almost no failures. It 
rests on the principle 
that dead germs injected 
into the body cause the 
body to build up its de¬ 
fenses against live germs 
of the same kind. This 
principle does not apply 
equally to all kinds of 
germs, but is wonderfully 
exemplified in the case of 
typhoid. 

The germs of typhoid 
are isolated and cultivated 
in the laboratory. They 
are then killed by heat 
and the dead germs are in¬ 
jected under the skin. 
Fifty or a hundred mil¬ 
lion or more are used in a 
dose. Three injections are made a few days apart. The 
recipient of the treatment is sometimes made slightly ill by 
it, but not so as to interfere with his work. Commonly he 
does not notice much effect at all. The treatment pretty 
thoroughly protects one from typhoid for several years — 
just how long is not known. 

There is a disease similar to typhoid called para-typhoid , 



Kill the flies in the spring. The prog¬ 
eny of a single pair might in one season 
under favorable circumstances amount to 
350,000,000. The common house fly 
has so often carried the germs of typhoid 
fever that it has been called the typhoid 
fly. 







DIPHTHERIA 


221 



produced by a different germ. After being protected against 
typhoid one may have para-typhoid, which some doctors may 
not distinguish from typhoid. Therefore the protective 
treatment may have seemed to fail. In recent preventive 
injections both kinds of dead germs are used at once so the 
protection is complete for these two diseases. In olden wars, 
typhoid was more deadly than 
all the contraptions of battle. 

In the recent Great War, ty¬ 
phoid was practically unknown 
in the armies in which the pre¬ 
ventive treatments were given 
to the soldiers. It is used 
throughout our army and 
navy, in time of peace as well 
as in war. People traveling 
or likely to get contaminated 
food or water always do well to 
take it. 


Where do typhoid germs grow ? 

How does drinking water become 
contaminated with them? Name 
several things we do at great 
expense to protect the water sup¬ 
ply. What other factors spread 
typhoid ? Have sanitary precau¬ 
tions decreased typhoid ? Have they eliminated the disease ? 

What treatment will prevent typhoid ? How does the treatment 
prevent ? In what way are the recent treatments better than the 
earlier ? Who should take the anti-typhoid treatments ? 


Figure 109. — Emil Adolph 
Behring, born 1854. 

He discovered diphtheria anti¬ 
toxin, which saves the lives of thou¬ 
sands of children every year. 


Diphtheria. — Only a few years ago diphtheria (sometimes 
called membranous croup) was very severe in its attacks. 
We were filled with consternation when it broke out in our 
community, and we could only sit helpless and watch the 
children die. Now we know just what to do for it. We 
can cure the sick and prevent others from taking the disease. 



222 


SOME COMMUNICABLE DISEASES 



The reason it is not altogether stamped out is because we do 
not provide our health officers with sufficient means, and 
because the people are too ignorant and careless to give them 
adequate support. Everyone should share in the campaign. 
Therefore we must teach everyone what to do. 

When we have diph¬ 
theria the cells of our 
body do the best they 
can to protect them¬ 
selves. The germs grow¬ 
ing in the throat produce 
a toxin which is absorbed 
and carried through the 
body, poisoning it. Our 
cells produce an antitoxin 
to counteract this toxin, 
and if they produce 
enough, we get well. The 
germs are probably killed 
off by our white blood 
cells. If our cells pro¬ 
duce too little antitoxin, 
the toxin of the disease 
poisons the nerve centers 
and the heart stops beat¬ 
ing. The curative treat¬ 
ment consists in bringing 
in antitoxin to help out 
that which our cells pro¬ 
duce. 

The antitoxin is obtained as follows: Diphtheria germs 
taken from the throat are grown in the laboratory, where 
they produce their toxin. This toxin (no live germs) is 
injected under the skin of a healthy horse. His body produces 
antitoxin to counteract this poison. After a few days the 


Figure 110. — Antitoxin Production. 

The first step in the production of diph¬ 
theria antitoxin is to grow the diphtheria 
germs in the laboratory. The glass flasks 
in this illustration contain serum, a food 
for the germs. The operator is introduc¬ 
ing pure cultures of the bacteria. The 
toxin produced by the growth of these 
germs will be injected into a horse. 




DIPHTHERIA 


223 


horse is given a larger dose of the toxin, and his body pro¬ 
duces more antitoxin. This is kept up for many weeks with 
increasing doses until the horse’s blood is well loaded with 
antitoxin. Then the horse 
is bled and from his blood 
the serum containing the 
antitoxin is extracted. 

The antitoxin taken 
from the horse is injected 
into the body of a person 
sick of diphtheria. If this 
is done promptly, the first 
day the disease appears, the 
patient is well in two or 
three days. If the treat¬ 
ment is delayed two or 
three days the patient’s 
recovery is slower and less 
certain. After the fourth 
or fifth day, the treatment 
is not likely to succeed. 

Of course with the treat¬ 
ment should go careful 
nursing and the patient 
should be quarantined. 

But it is mainly the anti- 

. . , i , , ,! Diphtheria antitoxin is packed in asep- 

toxm that produces the .. . , . r , . 

^ tic tubes in the laboratory. The doctor 

magical cure and prevents administering the dose attaches the needle 
the spread of the disease, and piston handle to this tube and so 

The stories about the makes it a hypodermic syringe. By this 
injuries produced by the me,hod ,he antitoxin is ke P‘ from 

.... r ... taminating germs. 

injection of antitoxin are 

mostly false alarms. When the antitoxin was first used 
there were some bad results. But since the improved meth¬ 
ods have been employed there is little to fear. The severe 



Figure 111. — Antitoxin. 











224 


SOME COMMUNICABLE DISEASES 


illness and death which sometimes follows the use of anti¬ 
toxin is owing to the toxin of the disease, and the tardy ad¬ 
ministering of antitoxin. 

To check the spread of diphtheria every case of severe 
sore throat should be quarantined and watched very care¬ 
fully for a day or two. A culture should be made. If it 
proves not to be diphtheria no harm has been done, and 
the patient is probably better for the care received. If it 
is diphtheria the patient and all those who have been exposed 
to him should immediately receive the antitoxin, because 
antitoxin is a preventive as well as a cure. The patient is 
kept in quarantine until repeated examinations of the throat 
fail to show any diphtheria germs. 

Much diphtheria is spread by “ carriers,” people who feel 
well and go about their daily work, yet have live diphtheria 
germs in the throat. It would be a heavy task to examine 
carefully the throats of all school children and quarantine 
the carriers till they are free from -the germs, but nothing else 
is an adequate means of completely stamping out the disease. 
Adults as well as children may be carriers. Removal of the 
tonsils often frees such carriers from the germs. 

Recently a test (Schick test) has been devised by which it 
is possible to tell whether one is susceptible or immune to 
diphtheria. It is found that about half the people could 
take the disease if they were exposed; the other half could 
not. If the susceptible people were all given a preventive 
treatment there would be no fertile ground for the disease 
and it would disappear. The preventive treatment consists 
in injecting “ TA,” a mixture of toxin and antitoxin. It 
gradually prepares the body to resist the disease. Three or 
four months after the treatment the body is fortified and will 
remain protected for several years. 

What change in our attitude toward diphtheria has come within 
the last thirty years ? What is the cause of this change ? Why have 
we not driven diphtheria out of the country? 


TETANUS 


225 


How does diphtheria harm us? What does the body do in self¬ 
protection? What can we do to assist the body? Describe the 
process of producing commercial antitoxin. Discuss the impor¬ 
tance of early use of antitoxin for prevention as well as for effecting 
a cure of diphtheria. What should be done with a child the first 
day it has a severe sore throat? 

What is a diphtheria carrier? How should he be treated? Why 
should throat examinations be made of all school children? 

What is the purpose of the Schick test? What is “ TA ”? For 
what is it used? 

Tetanus.—Tet'anus (lockjaw) is mentioned here because 
it kills a good many people though it can be cured in just the 
same way as diphtheria is cured, by an antitoxin. We can not 
hope to get rid of tetanus, the germs are so broadcast. They 
grow in the intestines of some domestic animals ; they infest 
stables and pastures. They do not grow in clean open cuts , 
but in deep wounds or under the skin, away from the air. 
Wounded soldiers brought back from the front in cars which 
had been used in transporting horses were infected with the 
disease. The trifling injuries produced by small fireworks 
often develop tetanus. Punctures by rusty nails are thought 
by some people to be especially dangerous. The rust is 
harmless. The danger lies in the likelihood of tetanus germs 
being on the nail or on the skin. 

To prepare tetanus antitoxin, tetanus germs are cultivated 
in the laboratory and the resulting toxin injected into a 
horse, — just the same process as for diphtheria. The 
tetanus antitoxin is of little value unless it is used early. 
If it is used immediately after the infection it almost always 
prevents the development of the disease. If its use is de¬ 
layed until the disease has set in it is often too late. 

Why will tetanus always be a problem of the treatment of the 
injured and not of the extermination of the germs of infection? 
Where do tetanus germs grow outside the body ? How do they get 
into the human body? How is the disease cured? Why is early 
treatment important? 


226 


SOME COMMUNICABLE DISEASES 


Rabies or Hydrophobia. The treatment for the prevention 
of ra/bi-es, like vaccination against smallpox, consists in caus¬ 
ing the body to build up resistance against the infection by 
the production of anti-bodies. Pasteur made the great 
discovery not only that all infection is caused by germs, but 
that each kind of infection or disease is caused by its own 
peculiar germ. With these facts established, he set about to 
find methods of fighting some of the most deadly germs. 

Rabies is generally caused in mien by the bites of rabid 
animals, and affects particularly the nerve system. It is 
not strange, therefore, that the spinal cord of a rabid animal 
should contain the germs of the disease in their most virulent 
form. Pasteur found that if the spinal cord of a rabid animal 
is dried, the germs of rabies become weaker. The longer the 
drying process,*the weaker the germs become. 

The preventive treatment consists in injecting into the 
body of a person who has been bitten by a mad animal a 
preparation made from the dried spinal cord of a rabid animal 
— generally a rabbit. As the body builds up resistance 
against these weakened germs, stronger and stronger injec¬ 
tions of spinal cord material (dried for shorter periods of 
time) are administered. In about three weeks, immunity 
is established in the patient. Fortunately, rabies does not 
develop until from three weeks to six months after infection. 
This always allows sufficient time for treatment, if it is 
begun promptly. 

How is rabies prevented? Why is prompt treatment necessary? 

Tuberculosis. Tuberculosis is largely an economic prob¬ 
lem. Although it attacks people in all walks of life the 
poor are preeminently the sufferers. There is little chance of 
freeing the community from tuberculosis until we get rid 
of poverty. It attacks the poor because they exhaust them¬ 
selves with work, are ill nourished, and lack fresh air. The 
well-to-do are less often affected. They live in ways that 


TUBERCULOSIS 227 

prevent the disease; they have plenty of good food, fresh 
air, sunlight, rest. 

Those who work in a dusty atmosphere or in cramped 
positions are the worst sufferers. There was a terrible 
increase of tuberculosis in the European countries during 
the War. It attacked the exhausted soldiers in the trenches. 
It made greater inroads among the ill fed and poorly housed 
at home. It is still rampant and will continue its ravages 
until the extreme poverty arising out of the War is mitigated. 
In most cases rest, fresh air, and good food will cure tuber¬ 
culosis. A preparation of dead tuberculosis germs is used 
with good effect sometimes. 

Though we must endure tuberculosis as long as we maintain 
an economic system which produces ignorance and abject 
poverty we can do much to limit its spread. People with 
open tuberculosis of the lungs, who are coughing and spitting 
the germs for the rest of us to take in, should be cared for 
in sanitaria. Many of them could be cured and returned 
to useful occupations. They could all be trained to avoid 
spreading contagion. 

If we were thoroughly rational and had the good of the 
whole community at heart we should provide sanitarium care 
for those also who are in the early stages of disease and still 
able to work. If they persist at their work while ill they will 
succumb. If they are given rest, fresh air, abundant food, 
and the needed medical attention, they may quickly be 
restored to full strength and become valuable members of 
society. 

Many children contract tuberculosis from the milk of 
tuberculous cows. We make a half-hearted effort to prevent 
the use of tuberculous milk. But here again it is an economic 
problem. It would cost considerable to free our milk herds 
from tuberculosis. It could be done. But as long as it is 
soiyie one else’s children that suffer, we pay a little more 
for certified milk for our own children, — and let the matter 


228 


SOME COMMUNICABLE DISEASES 



pass. We have some pure food laws. We need more. Most 
of all, we need officials who will be very much concerned 
about our health. Then we need to give them whole¬ 
hearted support. Only by so doing can we free the com¬ 
munity from this contamination of the children’s food. 


Figure 112. — Robert Koch. 

1843-1910. 

He was one of the earliest and 
most successful students of germs 
which cause diseases. In 1882 
he discovered the tubercle bacil¬ 
lus which causes consumption. He 
also discovered the germs which 
cause erysipelas, blood poisoning, 
and sleeping sickness, and did much 
to advance the treatment and cure 
of these diseases. 

recover from tuberculosis? W 
tuberculosis be cared for in sanit 


We must not forget that 
anyone is liable to the dis¬ 
ease if his body is weakened. 
To avoid tuberculosis we 
should observe the general 
rules of health, — plenty of 
food but not too much, fresh 
air, sleep, exercise. Thus we 
develop strength to resist the 
germs when they attack us, 
as they pretty surely will at 
times. We should, however, 
expose ourselves as little 
as possible to the germs. 
Though we do not need to 
shun our tuberculous friends 
we should be careful to avoid 
unhygienic intimacies; no 
kissing. The tuberculous 
should not handle food for 
others. If we do contract 
the disease we should get 
from our physician full rules 
for our conduct. They are 
too extensive to be given 
here. 

What people suffer most from 
tuberculosis? Why? Why are 
the well-to-do more likely to 
7 should people who have open 
ia? Why should people in the 



SANITARY PRECAUTION 229 

early, non-infectious stages of the disease be provided with sanita¬ 
rium care? 

How is tuberculosis commonly spread to children? How could 
we protect them ? 

What is the best thing we can do personally to avoid getting 
tuberculosis? How can we avoid exposure? Why are people 
forbidden to spit on floors and sidewalks? 

Sanitary Precautions. — The enactment, as well as the 
enforcement, of laws must be backed up by intelligent 
public opinion. Many people are brought face to face 
with the importance of sanitary ordinances only when sick¬ 
ness or death in their own families results from the failure 
to enforce such ordinances. 

The community should exercise much more careful super¬ 
vision over public concerns that handle food than it now 
does. Food in restaurants, delicatessen and grocery stores, 
that is liable to contamination by handling of patrons, or by 
mice or insects, should be kept under glass. Employes in 
such concerns should bfe licensed for their work. A license 
should not be issued except upon physical examination to 
prove that the individual is not a carrier of disease and upon 
proof that the applicant knows the fundamentals of sanita¬ 
tion as applied to the handling of foods. 

The lack of care of dishes at the ordinary soda fountain is 
worse than disgusting: it is dangerous. All glasses and 
dishes should be washed in hot soapy water, rinsed with clear 
hot water, and preferably drained without wiping. Especial 
care should be given to spoons, knives, or forks. The safest 
plan is to use. paper dishes, cups, and spoons, which can be 
destroyed without using a second time. In the best hotels 
and restaurants, where washing machines are used, the 
dishes come from the machine so hot that they dry readily 
without being wiped. This is as nearly perfect a system as 
has been contrived. 

Hygienic drinking devices or individual drinking cups 


230 


COMMUNICABLE DISEASES 


should be provided at all public drinking fountains, in 
factories, or in other places of employment. All employers 
should be compelled to maintain absolutely sanitary lavatory 
and toilet facilities for employes. Paper towels are always 
to be preferred to cloth towels of doubtful cleanliness in 
public lavatories. 

All public gathering places should be provided with effec¬ 
tive means of ventilation. Floors should be kept clean, and 
something more vigorous than the mere posting of signs 
done to prevent spitting. 

Laundries are not always as careful as they should be to 
keep all clean clothes absolutely out of contact with soiled 
clothes. Some hotels practice a doubtful kind of economy 
in changing only the lower sheet of each bed. Hotel sheets 
should be long enough to fold back over soiled blankets. 
The Oklahoma law demanding pine-foot sheets in hotels was 
not a crude joke. It was a wise provision for hotel sanitation. 

Dentists’, hair-dressers’, and barbers’ implements should 
be steam sterilized, boiled, or chemically disinfected after 
using. 

The city itself could set an excellent example to the citizens 
in the cleanliness of its streets, alleys, and public toilets. 

What could be done in public concerns that handle food to cut 
down the danger of disease transmission? How should dishes at 
soda fountains and in hotels and restaurants be cleansed? What 
provisions should every employer be compelled to make for the 
health of his employes? What can the movie theaters do to help 
in the campaign for health? Laundries? Hotels? Dentists, 
hair-dressers, and barbers? 


CHAPTER XV 


SAFETY FIRST 


An ounce of prevention is worth a pound of cure. 

— Proverb. 


The Need and the Hope. — Modern science has wrought 
almost miraculous cures through the skill of the surgeon and 
the recent discoveries in the healing art. But the greatest 
medical achievements lie in the realm of prevention. Pre¬ 
vention of disease is the goal of medical science. It is the 
duty of every citizen to supplement the life-saving work of 
the physician and the surgeon by bending every effort toward 
prevention in the sphere of accidents — to aid in a consistent 
campaign to decrease the hazards of everyday life. Hope 
for the ultimate success of such a campaign lies in educating 
people to the need of conducting it. 

During the Great War 70,000 of America’s fighting force 
were killed or died of injuries and disease. During the same 
months 120,000 people in the United States were killed in 
accidents. In the War 225,000 Americans were injured, 
while during the same time in the United States 3,000,000 
were seriously injured in accidents. The financial loss is be¬ 
yond our comprehension. That of fire alone is $300,000,000 
yearly, five sixths of which is unnecessary. There is need 
of the gospel of “ Safety First.” 

Most accidents could be prevented if we gave sufficient 
attention to the matter. In factories accidents occur most 
frequently when the workmen are tired. Working children 
especially suffer accidents when they have worked too long. 

231 




232 


SAFETY FIRST 



In the home and on the street accidents occur because we 
are careless. Children meet with injuries while seeking 
amusement — because we do not provide safe playgrounds 
for them. 

Discuss the extent of loss of life, limb, and property by accidents. 
Explain how we may hope to remedy the evil. 


National Safety Council. 


Figure 113. — Is He Killed ? 

The children were coasting in the street. One met disaster under the 
wheel of an automobile. The streets are for traffic. Places for play should 
be provided where there is no danger from cars. 

Illuminating Gas. — The two common disasters produced 
by gas are explosion and suffocation. Explosions come when 
escaped gas has mixed with the air and an open flame ignites 
the mixture. The caution is — never to bring a candle, lamp, 
or lighted match into a room or basement where there is a 
gas leak. One should use a flash light or find his way without 
a light to the meter and turn off the gas ; then ventilate the 
room before starting to find the leak. 

Accidental suffocations usually occur when persons are 
asleep, since if they were awake, the smell of the gas would 



FIRE 


233 


serve to warn them. A burner for heat or light should not 
be left lighted in the room when a person goes to bed, lest it 
go out and fill the room with gas. A rubber hose makes a 
dangerous connection for a gas plate or heater. The hose 
may crack or get loose and allow the escape of gas. 

In what safe way can a person look for a gas leak? Why is it 
dangerous to go to sleep with lighted gas in the room? Why is a 
rubber hose connection for a gas heater dangerous ? 

Carbon Monox'id. — One of the constituents of illuminating 
gas is a poisonous gas, carbon monoxid. It injures the one 
who breathes it not only by displacing oxygen in the lungs, 
but also by destroying the red corpuscles of the blood with 
which it comes in contact. Carbon monoxid is produced by 
incomplete combustion when fuel is burned without sufficient 
oxygen. It forms in heating stoves containing an excess 
of coal and burning with the draft closed, and is likely to 
escape into the room if the damper is shut. To avoid it, 
put on the fire only a little coal at a time and supply air 
enough for complete oxidation. Gas engines often generate 
it. We frequently hear of men’s dying suddenly in closed 
garages. Such persons are commonly poisoned by the carbon 
monoxid from the engine. The engine should not he run when 
the garage is closed. 

How does carbon monoxid injure the body? How can we 
avoid it in the room ? How avoid it in the garage ? 

Fire. — The five chief causes of destructive fires are : 

1. Electricity. The trouble is generally defective wiring. 
Most cities have ordinances specifying how wiring must 
be done and provide inspectors to see that the rules are 
observed. When the work is done according to modem 
specifications it is practically safe. 

2. Matches. Smokers are responsible for more than half 
the damage done by matches. They should always see that 
the match is entirely extinguished before it is thrown down. 


234 


SAFETY FIRST 


Children often burn themselves fatally and destroy homes 
by playing with matches. Rats sometimes use matches in 
building their nests and so cause destructive fires. If safety 
matches only were used, as the law requires generally in 
Europe, there would be less damage from them. All matches 
should be kept in metal containers away from rats and mice 
and out of the reach of children. 

3. Defective chimneys and flues. They may be either 
improperly constructed or worn out. More care in building 
and occasional inspection would remedy the defect. 

4. Stoves, furnaces, boilers, and their pipes. They become 
overheated or are insufficiently guarded. A plate of zinc 
or asbestos should be used under a stove, and at its side if 
necessary to protect a wall. A stove pipe going through a 
wall or ceiling should have a large collar to keep it from 
touching the wood. Flues from furnaces should not be 
placed too close to a basement ceiling. 

5. Spontaneous combustion. This is frequent in oily rags. 
If such rags are not destroyed, they should be kept in strong 
metal containers with tight covers. 

Lightning, the next most serious cause of fires, we can do 
little to guard against, though lightning rods do some good. 
Sparks on the roof are next in importance. It is easy to 
prevent their doing damage by covering the roof with an 
incombustible surface. The asphaltum felts are fire proof 
and are also cheaper than shingles. Other incombustible 
roof coverings, such as artificial fiber, slate, and tile, cost at 
, first more than shingles but are much more durable, and in 
the end more economical. 

Petroleum and its products cause many fires. Kerosene 
should be kept in a can which does not leak, especially if it 
is put on a wooden floor. It should never be used in kindling- 
fires. Kerosene stoves and lamps should not be filled while 
they are burning. 

Gasoline and benzine are even more dangerous than 


FIRE 


235 


kerosene. They should not be stored in the house but in a 
shelter in the yard. Their containers should be painted red 
to warn us to be careful. Keep the containers tightly cov- 
vered. Remember that it is the fumes that catch fire. 
Neither gasoline nor benzine should ever be used in a room 
where there is an open fire. Of course a gasoline stove should 
not be filled while it is burning. Cleaning clothes with gaso¬ 
line or benzine is dangerous. There are non-inflammable 
solvents which can be used instead. 

One third the accidental deaths of children are caused 
by burns of some sort. Children are often burned by play¬ 
ing with bonfires. It is not necessary to prohibit bonfires 
altogether; but little children by themselves should never 
be allowed to make fires. When they enjoy bonfires in 
company with their elders they should be taught caution. 

To minimize the injury from fires, large and expensive 
buildings are constructed of non-combustible materials, — 
steel, tile, brick, stone, cement. Many factories use heavy 
timbers insteadjof steel, but have otherwise very little wood¬ 
work. Such are called slow-burning structures. Though 
private dwellings are commonly made of rapidly combus¬ 
tible materials, which results in great financial loss from fire, 
they are so small that the residents can usually escape and 
there is little loss of life in their burning. It would be better 
for us to use non-combustible materials more in house build¬ 
ing. 

In most states the laws require tenements, factories, 
office buildings, etc., which are several stories high to have 
fire escapes. Care should be taken that these avenues of 
escape should not be obstructed by storing things on them, 
or in front of the doors or windows which lead to them. 
One of the best safety devices in large buildings is the fire 
partition, by means of which a building may be completely 
divided into two or more parts. The openings through 
these partitions may be closed on a moment’s notice by steel 


236 


SAFETY FIRST 


doors. If a fire breaks out in one part of the building the 
people can all move horizontally into the other part and close 
the door. At their leisure they can go down to the street and 
there will be no stampede for the elevators and no one will 
be trapped above the fire. 

There should be plenty of clearly labeled exits from build¬ 
ings in which many people gather. These exits should 
always be unlocked and the doors should open outward. 
Locked doors and inward opening doors jammed shut by the 
crowd pressing against them have been the cause of many 
injuries and deaths. Panic often kills more people than the 
fire itself. Fire drills at school are to fix in pupils the habit 
of moving in order and without excitement when the fire 
alarm sounds. 

It is said that nearly all fires could be put out within five 
minutes of their starting if some one were present who could 
keep his wits and who knew what to do in a given emergency. 
Burning solids should be doused with water. If water can 
not be had smother the flames with blankets, with earth, 
sand, or flour. Water should not be thrown on burning oil; 
the oil floats on it and spreads. A heavy cloth can be used 
to smother the flaming oil, or earth, sand, or flour may be 
thrown on it. A bubbly fluid like suds would float on the 
oil and smother out the blaze. 

A fire extinguisher is very convenient in putting out burning 
solids and oils. It generates a gas, usually carbon dioxid 
or carbon tetrachlorid, which falls over the burning object 
and smothers it out. For the use of the apparatus follow 
the directions printed on it. 

If a person’s clothing catches fire he should at once lie 
down to prevent the flames reaching the face and being 
breathed in. A blanket, rug, or overcoat should be wrapped 
around the body to smother out the flames. Simply rolling 
on the ground may put out the fire. Water should not be 
sprinkled on the burning clothes lest it be changed to steam 


FALLS 


237 


which would scald the skin — a worse injury than that pro¬ 
duced by the flames. If water is applied it should be in 
large enough quantity to extinguish the flames before it can 
be heated to form steam. 

An open fireplace should be carefully guarded not only to 
prevent sparks flying out upon the floor, but also to keep 
dresses and other inflammables from being drawn into the 
flames. The use of candles on Christmas trees is so danger¬ 
ous that it is being given up and electric lights substituted. 
We never can be too careful with fire! 

Name the five chief causes of destructive fires and tell what can 
be done to avoid fires in each' case. Name three other common 
causes of fires and tell what can be done to minimize the injury 
from each. Discuss the dangers from bonfires. Explain how build¬ 
ing materials affect the damage done by fires. What care should 
be taken of fire escapes that their usefulness be not impaired? 
Explain how a fire wall is a great safety guarantee in a large building. 
What rules should govern the use of exits? Why do we have fire 
drills at school? When a fire first starts what should be done to 
put it out? How should burning oil be smothered out? How 
should a person’s burning clothes be extinguished? Discuss the 
danger of candles on a Christmas tree. What cautions should be 
observed with a grate fire? 

Falls. — Among the common injuries to children are 
those resulting from falls. Children naturally climb a 
great deal. Though they do not often become panic stricken 
and lose their balance, they have little appreciation of the 
dangers they incur and need to be trained to exercise care. 
They should be taught to test the limb of a tree before they 
trust their weight to it. Ladders should be kept out of their 
way until they are old enough to go successfully down as well 
as up. Workers need to be reminded repeatedly that scaf¬ 
folds and ladders should be made secure. 

Obstacles should be kept out of paths, for many injuries 
come from tripping over impediments. Slippery places are 
dangerous to people of all ages. Sand or ashes should be 


238 


SAFETY FIRST 


sprinkled on an icy walk, and children should make their 
slides where they will not endanger pedestrians. No courte¬ 
ous person will drop a banana or orange peel on the side¬ 
walk, but, in the city will find a garbage can for it, and in the 
country will throw it where it will not offend the eye and 
where it will not get under foot. 

In the summer time when the window is open the screen 
should be so secure that a child leaning against it will not 
push it out and fall with it. Stairs should have strong rails 
that one going up or down may be able to steady himself 
if he trips. Porches should be well guarded. Any difficult 
passages in the house, especially a step or two up or down, 
should be well lighted to prevent a fall in the dark. 

How should children be taught to be careful in climbing? Why 
are banana peels on the sidewalk dangerous? Where should chil¬ 
dren make slides and where should they avoid sliding? Name 
some precautions we should use to avoid falls about the house. 

The City Street. — The traffic in city streets makes them 
dangerous to people of all ages. The rapidly driven motor 
vehicles have increased the danger many fold. We have 
rules of traffic to reduce the danger as much as possible. The 
following precepts should be observed: 

Cross the street only at the regular crossings; drivers 
are not looking out for pedestrians in the middle of the block. 

Start across only when there is a considerable gap between 
vehicles or when the policeman has stopped the traffic to 
make way for you. 

Look to your left in crossing the first half of the street and 
to the right in the second half. 

Go forward, not back, if you see a car coming toward you. 
The driver probably sees you and is planning to go behind 
you. 

Do not step out suddenly from behind an obstacle. Look 
first to see if a car is coming whose driver has had no chance 
to see you and to avoid you. 


THE CITY STREET 


239 



In alighting from a car always face forward, steadying 
yourself with your left hand on the bar, and stepping with 
the right foot first to the ground. 

Do not put head or hand out of the window. 

Do not “ hitch on ” to any vehicle. You may be thrown 
violently to the ground or under the wheels, or you may drop 
off right in the way of another car and be run over. 


National Safety Council. 

Figure 114 . — Stop and Look! 

On the average in the United States a child is killed every day and two 
on Sundays by automobiles. Don’t run into the streets without stopping to 
look both ways. 

Do not run into the street in any games. Your mind will 
be on the game and you will not be likely to notice any 
vehicle coming. 

If a plaything rolls into the street do not try to recover 
it until you have looked in both directions to see if the way 
is clear. 




240 


SAFETY FIRST 


Do not coast down driveways into the street on sleds, roller 
skates, or bicycles. 

Give as many rules as you can for avoiding street accidents. 

Car Drivers. — Familiarize yourselves with the rules of 
the road and live up to them conscientiously. 

Let your motto be safety rather than speed. 

Always keep on the right hand side of the road. 

Slow up for cross streets and in turning corners. 

Do not pass a street car while it is taking on or discharging 
passengers. 

Be unusually careful in passing schools or going through 
streets where children are playing. 

Be sure to give the signal when you are about to stop or 
turn the corner. 

Do not try to look about to see the things which attract 
the interest of your passengers. Keep your eyes on the road 
and your mind on your driving. In the country draw up to 
the side of the road and stop if you wish to view the landscape. 

Give rules to be observed by drivers of cars. 

Railroads. — We have to depend on railroad officials to 
make travel safe for the passengers. Our duty is to be careful 
in getting on and off trains and to sit quietly in our seats 
in transit. A very large part, however, of the damage done 
by railroads is suffered by those who are not passengers. 
Many trespassers on the railroad’s right of way are injured 
or killed through no fault of the railroad managers. People 
walking along the tracks instead of in the highway are often 
run down. Men stealing rides are frequently thrown off 
and run over. Many boys catching rides on moving cars 
fall under the wheels. The only safe thing to do is to keep 
away from the yards and the tracks where you have no 
business. In other countries such trespassing is forbidden 
by statutory law. It should not be permitted in America. 

Horrible accidents frequently occur at grade crossings. 


RAILROADS 


241 



In congested districts we should build viaducts over rail¬ 
ways or cut roadways under them for the passage of vehicles 
and pedestrians, and abolish as far as possible the grade 
crossings. Where there is considerable traffic at a necessary 
grade crossing, a watch¬ 
man should be stationed 
to guard against acci¬ 
dent. Every crossing 
should be protected by a 
bell and by flashing lights 
that give warning of an 
approaching train. Build¬ 
ings and bushes should 
not be allowed to ob¬ 
struct the view of an ap¬ 
proaching train. Auto¬ 
mobiles should slow up 
when coming to a cross¬ 
ing and not attempt to 
go over until the driver 
is sure the way is clear. 

Though much has been 
done through employ¬ 
ment of air brakes, block 
signals, well trained and 
temperate engineers to 
secure safety for trains 
and passengers, the lives 
of engineers, fi r e m e n, 
trainmen, and switch¬ 
men are placed in un¬ 
necessary danger because 
all possible precautions 
are not taken to remove hazards from their occupations. 
The men are at times very careless, and the management 


National Safety Council. 
Figure 115. — Dangerous Play. 

“ Never hop a freight, for nothing quite 
heals the wound received under grinding 
wheels.” 




242 


SAFETY FIRST 


is slow to install safety devices — because it would increase 
the expenses of the road and seem to take from the profits. 
If the primary aim of all roads were safe service there would 
be fewer injuries and deaths among their servants, and 
the larger profits would eventually take care of them¬ 
selves. 

How are many trespassers on railway property seriously injured ? 
What should be done to prevent this evil? How can the harm of 
grade crossings be minimized? How can the lives of the workers 
on railroads be made more safe? 

Water Dangers. — The sea, lakes, and rivers have always 
been the friends of man, the sources of food, the avenues of 
travel, the means of healthful recreation. But they have 
always been fraught with danger. Our problem is how to 
make the water safe and therefore more useful and more en¬ 
joyable. In the first place every boy and every girl should 
learn to swim and dive. Then if they are sometime thrown 
into the water in an accident they will know what to do to 
get out. In the second place, they should learn the limita¬ 
tions of their own powers and the dangers of the water, 
that they may not expose themselves to inordinate risks. 
It is folly for a mediocre swimmer to try to swim unattended 
across a wide stream or lake. A person not in robust health 
is foolish to dive into cold deep water; the shock of the cold 
is too liable to make him helpless. 

Some valuable precautions for swdmmers are: 

Do not go far from land unless attended by a boat; even 
very good swimmers may get cramps and need help. 

Do not stay in the water until you become cold and your 
lips blue. 

Do not go in when you are exhausted or just after a hearty 
meal. 

Do not dive unless you know the water is deep enough. 

Wear ear plugs when you dive if the water affects your 
ears. 


MACHINES AND TOOLS 


243 


Most of the lives lost in boating could have been saved 
if the victims of the accident had known how to swim. The 
most common accident to rowboats and canoes is tipping 
over. Therefore do not rock the boat. Do not try to change 
seats, or stand up for any purpose. Do not lean over the side. 
Go out in a boat only with some one who knows how to 
manage it and can swim. In passenger ships there should 
be lifeboats and rafts sufficient to accommodate every pas¬ 
senger, and a cork jacket or other life preserver for each. 
When a person goes on board the boat he should learn where 
the life preservers are so that he will not be delayed in find¬ 
ing them in case of accident. • 

Skating is one of the best of winter sports, but the danger 
of thin ice should make us cautious. In a river the danger 
is greater than in a lake since the current is likely to carry 
one who breaks through down under the ice beyond rescue. 
We should take the precaution of trying the ice over shallow 
water first and not venturing on newly frozen patches with¬ 
out first inspecting them. To rescue a person who has broken 
through throw him the end of a rope tied in a noose, or take 
off your coat and use it for a rope, or reach him a board. 

Explain the value of learning to swim and dive. What pre¬ 
cautions should swimmers observe? What should a person in a 
rowboat do to avoid accident ? What precaution should a passenger 
on a steamboat observe ? What should a skater do to avoid break¬ 
ing through the ice? What can you do to help a person who has 
broken through the ice ? 

Machines and Tools. — All machines and tools, whether 
on the farm, in the village, or in the large factory, are a source 
of danger. The machine or implement should be planned so 
as to reduce to a minimum the danger of using it. In using 
it one must be constantly on guard lest carelessness bring 
one to grief. All belts, shafts, and gearings should be pro¬ 
tected by railings and guards. Power saws, punches, and 
planes — in fact nearly all machines — are now made with 


244 


SAFETY FIRST 



protecting devices to save the fingers and arms of the work¬ 
men. It is inexcusable not to use the best means of pro¬ 
tection conceivable. 

A good light on one’s work is a valuable safeguard. Men 
get their fingers and hands injured because they do not see 


Figure 116. — Machine Guard. 

This illustrates how machines are carefully guarded, that the workman 
who tends the machine or anyone passing by may be protected from injury. 

the parts of the machine clearly. A proper illumination 
also conserves the eyesight. 

No matter how well the machine is protected the worker 
is likely to be injured if he relaxes his vigilance. When he 
gets tired he is more likely to become careless. Accidents are 
more common just before noon and especially in the late af¬ 
ternoon. The more tired a workman is the more he should 
strengthen his determination to be careful. It is unwise for 
a man to extend his work day to the point of fatigue. 









ELECTRICITY 


245 


Carefulness is a virtue which can be increased by training, 
and which goes only with a capable mind. Children and 
men of very limited intelligence should not be allowed to work 
with the more dangerous machines. A man should be 
promoted to such work only when he has proved his care¬ 
fulness and his sound judgment in emergencies. 

What can be done by a factory owner to minimize the dangers of 
his machinery? What is the workman’s part in avoiding accidents? 
When should he be particularly on his guard? How can a man 
qualify for work on a dangerous machine? Why is a good light 
an important safeguard in a factory ? 

Electricity. — Besides causing many destructive fires, 
electricity injures or kills a large number of men who work 
with it. It has been especially dangerous since the very 
high currents have been used for long distance transmission. 
A workman gets careless and lets his body touch the wires, 
a short circuit through his body kills him instantly. It is 
never safe for a boy to climb a pole carrying wires. He is 
not able to tell the' high potential wires from those 
carrying harmless currents. A touch may snuff him out of 
existence. 

Wires are sometimes broken in such a way that one end 
drops to the ground, flashing and sputtering where it hits. 
If it is either a trolley wire or a cable carrying a heavy current 
it is dangerous. The first person who discovers it should 
stand guard warning people away from it until a policeman 
is called to take the matter in charge. If a man has been 
struck and knocked down by the wire he should be pulled 
away carefully — so carefully that his rescuer be not also 
caught in the electric circuit — and attempts made to restore 
him to consciousness. Artificial respiration (see page 255) 
should be used if breathing has stopped. 

Why should boys never climb poles carrying electric wires? 
What should be done when a wire carrying a heavy current breaks 
and one end falls down? If it hits a man what should be done for 
him? 


246 


SAFETY FIRST 


Poisons. — To prevent disasters from the few necessary 
poisons which should be kept in every household the follow¬ 
ing precautions should be observed : 

Keep no more poisons in the house than you really need. 

Have every package or bottle clearly labeled with a poison 
warning mark. 

Never take any medicine in the dark. Read the label and 
be sure it is what you want. 

Do not keep poisons on the same shelf with medicines. 

Put them on a high shelf out of the reach of children — 
better under lock and key. 

Be prepared to use the proper antidote for each of the 
poisons you have. See page 251. 

Learn to recognize poison ivy and poison oak and any 
other poisonous plants that may be in your locality, that you 
may avoid them. 

What precautions should we observe to avoid poisons ? 

Dangers in Food. — Luckily for us, the serious dangers 
in food are not common. If we sometimes take food that is 
a little spoiled, in which there is an unusual number of germs, 
we may have a touch of indigestion, but commonly it is not 
very bad. There are, however, several harmful substances 
and disease germs sometimes taken in food. They are 
discussed on pages 103 to 105. 

A good rule is not to eat or drink things unknown. Few 
things have so direct and deep reaching an effect on our 
health as does our food. For a full discussion see Chapters 
IV and VI. 

What is a good rule for avoiding dangers in food ? 

Firearms and Explosives. — The use of firearms is a mere 
survival from an outgrown past. In pioneer days in America, 
lasting until a generation ago, guns were useful for self¬ 
protection and for supplying the family with meat. Now 
there is no more game to be shot except in a few practically 


FIREARMS AND EXPLOSIVES 


247 


inaccessible places, and a man is safer without a gun. No 
one but an officer of the law is justified in carrying arms. 
There should be no guns or pistols about the house for chil¬ 
dren to get hold of. If there is an old relic it should never be 
loaded. The argument that it is necessary to keep a pistol 
in the house for protection against burglars is weak, since 
burglars also are usually armed, and one has at best only an 
even chance with them. Children will find guns somewhere. 
They should be taught never to point them at anyone, 
whether loaded or not. Most accidental discharges with 
direful consequences have been of guns thought not to be 
loaded. Play guns which children point at things and peo¬ 
ple and pretend to shoot are responsible for a great deal of 
our vicious gun thought and conduct. 

Within the last few years a wave of common sense has 
swept over the country with regard to the celebration of 
Independence Day. We no longer think it necessary to 
manifest our patriotism by blowing off fingers and putting 
out eyes with explosives. Fireworks have a certain attrac¬ 
tiveness. Let them be burned by men who understand them 
and are trained to be careful, while we admire from a safe 
distance. The best advice to give to one who wants to play 
with fireworks is “ Don’t.” 

The thousand and one little devices invented to make 
explosives safe are futile. The only safety lies in letting the 
dangerous things alone. Blank cartridges and toy pistols 
for the explosion of paper caps occasionally produce fatal 
injuries. There is always a crop of tetanus (see page 225) 
after a Fourth of July celebration. Don’t use explosives. 
Celebrate by means of games and pageants, in ways that 
call out the activities of the body and mind, that challenge 
your wit and skill. 

Why is there no longer any good reason for having guns in the 
house? Why are they dangerous? What dangerous play with a 
gun should never be allowed? Discuss the injuries which come 


248 


SAFETY FIRST 


from Fourth of July celebrations. How is tetanus often produced? 
What better means have we of celebrating a holiday ? 

Practical Jokes. — When the fool goes after fun he thinks 
he must get it at the expense of some one else. He expects to 
have a laugh at some one’s discomfiture or annoyance, and 
so he pulls the chair from under a man about to sit down — 
and injures him seriously; he puts powder in a cigar — and 
ruins the smoker’s eye; he ties strings across the path — 
and breaks his victim’s arm. The practical joker’s mind is 
fertile; there seems to be no end to the schemes he can 
devise to injure his friends. But his mind is shallow; he 
doesn’t think, beyond the laugh, of the injury he is likely to 
bring by his jokes. He doesn’t mean to do harm; he just 
doesn’t think. But we ought to think. Safety first ought 
always to be in the foreground of our minds, — safety first 
and fun which does not require a victim. 

Explain how a practical joke is the product of a small mind. 
How will people who have a better developed intellect get their 
fun? 


CHAPTER XVI 


IN CASE OF ACCIDENT 


The chapter on accidents is the longest chapter in the book. 

— Southey. 


In case of serious accident always get the help of a doctor 
as soon as possible. If the injured person can be moved, 
take him to a hospital if one is accessible; if not, to the 
doctor’s office. The hospital and the doctor’s office have 
facilities for caring for injuries which our homes lack. If 
you must call the doctor to the patient tell him as much as 
you can about the injury that he may know what instru¬ 
ments or appliances to bring. The suggestions here given 
are for first aid, to be used while waiting for the doctor, or 
in an injury so slight that the doctor’s aid is not needed. 

Why is it better to take an injured person to a hospital or doctor’s 
office than to the home? If you must call the doctor to your home, 
what information should you give him with the call ? 

Broken Bones. — First aid for broken bones aims to keep 
them undisturbed. If the break is in the leg, lay the patient 
down, legs straight, and gently bind a stick or something 
stiff beside the leg to keep it from moving at the break. It 
is well to wrap the legs together. Prop with pillows, if 
possible, to avoid any strain. A broken arm should be 
stiffened by a stick wrapped beside it and should be carried 
in a sling. If the patient can lie down and await the doctor’s 
coming, his arm may be made most comfortable by laying 
it in a semiflexed position on a pillow. For a broken collar 
bone or hand or finger bones, put the arm in a sling. For 

249 




250 


IN CASE OF ACCIDENT 


broken foot or ankle bones keep the patient lying down as 
much as possible. If the end of a broken bone projects 
through the skin (compound fracture) be very careful not 
to touch it or to let any wraps touch it. It may not be 
already infected, but will be if you get your fingers on it. 

State the method you would use for each of the following bones 
to keep a break from moving; hand, foot, leg, collar bone. 

Sprains. — The rule for treating a sprain is: Keep the 
joint still. To prevent movement a secure bandage is put 
on. The pain can be decreased by hot applications, — wet 
compresses, hot water bag, electric pad, or light. 

Why should a sprain be kept quiet ? Why is a bandage put on ? 
How can the pain and swelling be reduced ? 

Bleeding. Most accidents injure veins and very small 
arteries. To check the bleeding, place a surgically clean 
pad over the wound and bind it down moderately tight with 
a bandage. If the bleeding is not profuse you can take time 
to sponge around, not in, the wound and apply iodin to the 
skin around it before you put on the dressing. In rare 
cases an artery of considerable size is cut. This can be 
recognized by the spurting of the blood in jets. To check 
the bleeding a strong bandage should be tied above the cut, 
and a stick put under it and turned to twist the bandage 
very tight. This tourniquet (-ket) should not be used unless 
you are sure an artery has been cut; you are more likely to 
do harm than good with it. The bandage must be made 
very tight or not used at all. If it presses only a little it 
checks the venous return without stopping the arterial flow. 

To stop nose bleeding hold the head up ; put cold water or 
any cold object on the nose, forehead, or back of the neck; 
plug the nose moderately tight with a wad of absorbent cot¬ 
ton. If the bleeding does not stop, a plug of cotton soaked 
in hydrogen peroxid may be used with good effect. 

What can you use for a clean pad to put on a wound? Why is it 
well to apply iodin to the skin at the sides of the cut? How can 


SPLINTERS 


251 


you tell when an artery is cut ? What should be done to check the 
flow of blood from an artery ? What harm results from this band¬ 
age being too loose? What should be done to stop nose bleeding? 

Poison. — The main thing to do with poisons in the 
stomach is to get them out as soon as possible. If possible 
the stomach should be emptied promptly, without waiting 
for a doctor. To induce vomiting, drink tepid water; 
drink a cup of water with a spoonful of mustard in it; tickle 
the throat with the finger thrust as far in as possible. If 
phenol (carbolic acid) or lye has been swallowed drink a 
small cup of oil before causing vomiting. The oil will 
prevent severe burning of the lining of the mouth and nose 
when the poison is thrown up. For metallic poisons, e. g. y 
mercuric bichlorid, the white of egg taken into the stomach 
will do some good. As an antidote for iodin, administer 
boiled starch and water or boiled or baked potato. Never 
put a poison on your shelf without posting on the bottle 
the antidote for it, and having the antidote handy. 

What is the general emergency treatment for poisons in the 
stomach? Name three things which can be done to induce vomit¬ 
ing. For what poisons should oil be taken ? For what should white 
of egg be used? 

Choking. — If a child chokes, have him hold his hands 
above his head while you slap him vigorously on the back. 
If this does not dislodge the obstruction, have the child 
He down on his face while you slap his back. A small child 
should be held by the feet, head down, and shaken or 
slapped on the back. 

How would you dislodge from the throat an obstruction which 
stops the breathing? 

Splinters. — To pull out a splinter, put the point of a 
knife blade under the splinter and press the splinter down on 
the blade with the thumb nail. For a small sphnter a needle 
may be sufficient. Disinfect the puncture with iodin or 
alcohol. 


252 


IN CASE OF ACCIDENT 


How can you pull a splinter out of your skin? 

Bites and Stings. — Insects in biting or stinging usually 
inject an acid poison which irritates the skin. Although the 
injury is rarely serious the annoyance is considerable. The 
irritation can usually be allayed by sponging with hot water 
and applying baking soda. If you can see a stinger in the 
skin pull it out as you would a sliver. 

What should be done for insect bites and stings ? 

Poison Ivy. — Besides poison ivy and poison oak there are 
a number of plants which by mere contact produce a rash 
or blisters on the skin. Some of us seem immune to their 
poisons, while others are affected in degrees varying from a 
light rash to severe sickness. If you are susceptible, sponge 
the skin with alcohol and then wash in water as soon as 
possible after exposure. Among the many remedies recom¬ 
mended, lime water, dilute phenol, and photographer’s 
hypo are commonly at hand. A severe case should be put 
in the doctor’s care. 

What poisonous plants can you recognize? How do they affect 
the skin of those who are susceptible? What should be done to 
prevent, and to relieve the irritation ? 

Infected Punctures. — The teeth of a dog, or nails, or 
other dull instruments make punctures which bleed little 
and are nearly always infected. They should be treated 
at once with a strong antiseptic. Take in a dropper a few 
drops of strong iodin or phenol undiluted, thrust the point 
of the dropper as deep into the puncture as possible and 
force the antiseptic into the wound. This is called cauter¬ 
izing the wound. 

What wounds should be cauterized ? How would you do it ? 

Scrapes and Scratches. — If scratches from thorns never 
suppurate in your skin, you need not bother to do anything 
for them. If they have a tendency to form pus, treat them 
as soon as possible with strong iodin. Scratches from the 


FROST BITE 


253 


claws of a dog or cat should always be well sponged with 
iodin immediately. If you get “ floor burn ” or any other 
scraping injury in the gymnasium put iodin on at once. For 
any break in the skin iodin is the best antiseptic. 

What should be done to prevent pus forming in any broken skin? 
Why are scratches from dogs or cats especially likely to suppurate ? 

Burns. — An extensive or deep burn is a serious matter 
and should be referred to the doctor. If possible avoid 
touching it while waiting for the physician. For a slight 
burn the main thing is to grin and bear it. Lime water and 
linseed oil in equal parts or baking soda wet or dry may 
relieve the pain somewhat. • If the skin is broken, care must 
be taken not to infect the raw surface. It is better not to 
bind it with a tight dressing, but cover it loosely with strips 
of aseptic gauze — not absorbent cotton. Still better, if it 
can be kept clean, leave it exposed to the air. 

What should you do with a serious burn while waiting for the 
doctor? What treatment is recommended for small burns? If 
germs are in the burn would they be more likely to grow under a 
bandage, or in the open? 

Frost Bite. — The time-honored direction to rub a frozen 
ear or nose with snow must be taken with caution. If the 
weather is very cold, the snow will freeze the face and make 
a bad matter worse. In polar regions a warm hand is held 
over the frozen member till it thaws out. The process of 
thawing should be gradual to avoid inflammation afterward. 
Out of doors the thawing will probably not be too rapid. 
If you come into the house with a frozen ear you may well 
hold snow over it to keep it from changing temperature too 
rapidly. Slapping and rubbing will stimulate the blood 
circulation. When the frozen part begins to redden, active 
treatment should be stopped. 

Why is it objectionable to rub a frozen ear with very cold snow ? 
How do polar explorers warm frozen spots in the face? How do 
slapping and rubbing affect the temperature? 


254 


IN CASE OF ACCIDENT 


Fainting. — A person becomes faint because of insufficient 
oxygen in the brain. Faintness may be caused by reduced 
oxygen in the atmosphere, by some defect in lungs, heart, or 
blood vessels, or by an emotional interference with the 
normal circulation. Whatever the cause, the first aid treat¬ 
ment is the same. Lay the person down flat — if convenient, 
the head a little lower than the body. Hold smelling salts 
or ammonia (with caution) to the nostrils. Sponge the face 
with cool water. Loosen tight clothing. Keep inquisitive 
people away and make room for fresh air. Consciousness 
will be regained in a few minutes if nothing serious is the 
matter. If the case is serious, your treatment has done no * 
harm. 

What affects the brain to cause fainting ? To what may the lack 
of oxygen be due ? What should be done to a fainting person ? 

Epilepsy. — The epileptic fit can be distinguished from a 
faint by the spasmodic contractions of the muscles. If 
you let the epileptic lie on the floor he is less likely to injure 
himself or others. There is some danger of his biting his 
tongue. To prevent this, wedge something between his 
teeth, — a knot in a handkerchief, a cork, a piece of soft 
wood. Consciousness will soon return. 

What is the only thing you need do for anyone in an epileptic fit ? 

Suffocation. — If oxygen is excluded from the lungs a 
person suffocates. The two most common causes of suffoca¬ 
tion are asphyxiation by illuminating gas in a close room, and 
drowning. In either case the lungs are cut off from the 
air supply, and filled with gas or water. The thing to do, 
obviously, is to get oxygen back into the lungs as soon as 
possible. If the patient is unconscious in a gas-filled room 
he must be carried out into the fresh air and restoratives 
applied, as in the case of fainting. He will probably recover' 
consciousness soon. 

If he has breathed the gas for so long that his respiration 


SUFFOCATION 


255 


and heart beat are very slow it is a case for the doctor. While 
waiting for the doctor artificial respiration will be necessary 
if the breathing stops. Lay the patient face downward. 
Stand or kneel astride him, facing toward his head. Stoop 
down and with your hands (thumb and fingers parallel) 
grasp his body at the height of the floating ribs. Swing 
your knees in against your arms and with the force of your 
arms and legs press the body between your hands. At the 



Figure 117 . — Artificial Respiration. 

This method of resuscitation is applied to a person rescued from the 
water, asphyxiated by gas, or unconscious from electric shock. 


same time throw your weight a little forward and press down 
with the “ heel of your hand ” on the patient’s back. Swing 
yourself a little backward and release the pressure. Press 
again, release, and so on, pressing every three or four seconds. 
When the patient begins to breathe by his own muscular 
contractions, turn him over and see if he will keep it up with¬ 
out your help. 

Artificial respiration should be applied if a person is found 
after the breathing has ceased and the body is still warm. 



256 


IN CASE OF ACCIDENT 


It should be kept up for an hour or more if the patient does 
not recover sooner. 

In restoring a drowned person you must get the water 
out of the lungs before you can get the oxygen in. Turn 
him on his face, stand over him, put your hands under his 
abdomen and lift his hips two feet from the floor. If some¬ 
one else is present, have your companion slap the patient’s 
back. Repeat, if necessary to get the water to run out. 
Then practice artificial respiration to get the air into the 
lungs. The patient’s cold, wet clothes should be stripped off 
and he should be wrapped in a warm blanket. His arms and 
legs should be slapped and rubbed toward the body to help 
the circulation. 

Such an apparatus as the pulmotor is for the expert. Others 
are likely to do more harm than good with it. 

What are the two most common accidents which produce suffoca¬ 
tion? What should be done with a patient rescued unconscious 
from a room full of gas? If the patient has stopped breathing 
what should be done while waiting for the doctor? How does the 
carbon monoxid in illuminating gas affect the one breathing it ? 

What is the first thing to do with a man pulled out of the water 
unconscious? Describe artificial respiration. What should be 
done to increase the blood circulation and warmth of the patient ? 

Antiseptics 

Of the many good antiseptics one should choose a few and 
have them always ready for use. Keep them safely out of 
the reach of children. 

Boric Acid. Boric (boracic) acid is the one thing anyone 
can use in the eyes without harming them. Buy it in the 
form of either a powder or crystals. Prepare only a little 
at a time and do not try to keep the solution more than a few 
days. Use boiled water, about one fourth of a cup or less. 
Drop in the boric acid till no more will dissolve. In apply¬ 
ing it to the eye use a clean dropper or absorbent cotton. Do 


PHENOL AND LYSOL 


257 


not dip the used cotton into the boric solution but take a 
clean piece each time. 

What is the chief thing for which you would use boric acid? 
How would you prepare it? Why only a little at a time? Why 
boiled water? How apply it to the eyes? Why not dip the used 
cotton back into the boric solution? 

Iodin. — Buy the strong tincture from the druggist. It 
is the best disinfectant for you to use in cuts and scratches 
and for cauterizing bites and punctures. A convenient 
applicator is made by twisting a wisp of cotton around the 
end of a toothpick or longer splinter of wood. You must 
not use iodin in the eye or on the mucous membrane. 

What is the best disinfectant for scratches and cuts? How 
apply it ? Where should you not use it ? 

Mercury Bichlorid. — The most convenient disinfectant 
for washing the hands or cloths is mercury bichlorid. It is 
mixed with citric acid and made into blue tablets called 
antiseptic tablets. Dissolve a tablet (7| gr.) in a pint of 
water (3 or 4 pints for the hands) in an enamel or earthen¬ 
ware dish. (It corrodes metal.) It may be used freely for 
disinfecting hands and cloths., but is irritating to wounds and 
must not be used internally. 

If you get disease germs on your hands what would you use 
after soap and water to clean them? What would you do with 
infected handkerchiefs and wash-cloths before sending them to the 
laundry? Why not mix a bichlorid solution in a tin or galvanized 
iron dish? 

Phenol and Lysol. — Phe'nol (carbolic acid) and ly'sol 
do not tarnish instruments as mercury bichlorid does, and 
are used for disinfecting metals, as well as hands and cloths. 
To prepare the solution put about a pint of water into a 
basin and add a spoonful of the strong antiseptic. Undi¬ 
luted phenol will burn the skin. Be careful not to touch it. 

For what are phenol and lysol used? How is the solution pre¬ 
pared ? What caution should be observed ? 


258 


IN CASE OF ACCIDENT 


Hydrogen Peroxid. — People use “ peroxid ” altogether 
too much, thanks to the shrewd advertiser. It is not so 
good an antiseptic as those named above, but it is very good 
to wash out pus. It must not be injected into cavities from 
which it can not escape freely when it bubbles up; but 
dropped on pus surfaces it cleans them up very well. It is 
useful to check bleeding in the nose or mouth. 

For what do people sometimes use peroxid when they would 
better use iodin ? Would you use it on a boil that has been opened ? 
When would you use it in the mouth or nose? 

Fumigation. — We fumigate clothing, rooms, and whole 
houses to rid them of insects and vermin of all sorts as well 
as of disease germs. To fumigate a closet full of clothes, 
to kill moths and other pests, pour a tablespoonful of carbon 
bisulfid into a dish, set it on a high shelf in the closet and 
shut the door. Caution! It is inflammable. Do not 
bring fire near it. It has a very strong odor. 

A good room fumigator is formalin (formaldehyd). Be¬ 
fore proceeding to fumigate, moisten the air of the room 
thoroughly by boiling water in it or spraying warm water 
into the air with an atomizer. Spread out in the room every¬ 
thing that is to be fumigated, open the bed and shut the 
windows tight. Hang a sheet on a line stretched across the 
room, sprinkle a pint of formalin on it and quickly go out 
and close the door. 

The most convenient fumigators are the paraformaldehyd 
“ candles.” You must prepare the room as for any other 
fumigation, then stand the fumigator in a basin of earth 
or water to guard against fire, and light the wicks. The 
heat vaporizes the paraformaldehyd, which is in a little cup 
above the flame. Full directions are in the package. 

Formalin fumes kill bacteria but do not kill bed bugs. 
A better fumigator for insects is obtained by burning sulfur. 
After the room is prepared the stick of sulfur (called a candle) is 
put, for protection against fire, in a basin which is set in a 


SOAP AND SUNSHINE 


259 


larger basin or tub containing earth (or water). After lighting 
the sulfur go out quickly and close the door. Sulfur fumes 
bleach; use formalin when you want to protect the color of 
hangings or other fabrics. The fumes should remain in the 
closed room at least several hours, a day if convenient. 
After the room has been well aired it is ready for occupation. 

The best means of disinfecting clothing is to keep it in 
boiling hot steam for an hour. This does not harm the cloth¬ 
ing and leaves it free from germs or vermin of any kind. It 
requires more apparatus than can find a place in the home. 
Every considerable community should have a public plant 
to serve the needs of all. 

What is the purpose of fumigation? How is carbon bisulfid 
used to fumigate a closet or trunk? What caution should be ob¬ 
served in its use? What is the most convenient room fumigator? 
Explain how it is used, two ways. For insects what is a better 
fumigating agent than formalin? What great caution should be 
used in applying it ? When would another fumigator be preferable ? 
What is the best means of disinfecting clothing? Why should the 
municipality provide the plant for this work? 

Soap and Sunshine. — In our ardor for fumigating we 
must not overlook the value of cleaning. Soapsuds and the 
scrubbing brush are excellent disinfectants. Sunshine kills 
some kinds of germs more quickly than fumigation does. 
Roll up your shades and let the sunshine in. Don't value 
the colored designs in your carpets or rugs more than you do 
the health of your family. Hospitals rely on cleanliness, 
light, and fresh air for getting rid of disease germs more 
than on fumigation. 

It was once the custom to burn the bed and clothing 
used by a smallpox patient, and still is the practice where 
there are no conveniences for adequate disinfection. Fire 
is an effective agent for killing germs. It is wise always 
to consign infected articles of slight value, such as simple 
toys, papers, and cheap books, to the flames. 


260 


IN CASE OF ACCIDENT 


In moving into another house, what precautions do you take to 
avoid disease germs? Why is it important that the floors be 
smooth ? Why is sunshine in the home so desirable ? If you have 
no further use for the toys and books that amused your sick child, 
is it an act of kindness to send them to poor children? Give the 
reason for your answer. 

Historical Note. — Nowadays, antiseptic treatment of 
wounds is accepted altogether as a matter of course. It is 
so much a part of our everyday life that we do not realize 
it is one of the two greatest steps of progress in surgery. 
The use of anesthetics and the proving of the theory that 
infection is caused by bacteria are the two discoveries that 
have made modern surgery possible. 

In 1842, Dr. Crawford W. Long, a native of Georgia, was 
a professor in the University of Pennsylvania. A pupil of 
his, who was a drug clerk, told him one day how young drug 
clerks amused themselves by whiffing the fumes of sulfuric 
ether until they lost consciousness. Dr. Long immediately 
saw the surgical possibilities of the drug. That year he 
performed an operation on an etherized patient, and within 
the next three years, successfully repeated his experiment 
several times. But he did not publish an account of his 
findings, and the surgical world knew nothing of his work 
until 1849. 

In 1844, Dr. Horace Wells, a dentist of Hartford, performed 
a dental operation on a patient under the influence of nitrous 
oxid (laughing gas). He related the experience to other 
dentists and surgeons and told of experiments he was making 
with ether. Two years later, as a result of further investi¬ 
gations prompted by Dr. Wells’ work, an operation was 
performed by Dr. Morton and Dr. Jackson in the Massa¬ 
chusetts General Hospital on a patient anesthetized with 
ether. This was the first public use of an anesthetic in the 
performance of a surgical operation. There has been much 
controversy as to who discovered the use of anesthetics. 
It seems clear that the honor belongs equally to Drs. Long 


HISTORICAL NOTE 


261 


and Wells, since neither was aware of the work of the other. 
Although Dr. Long was the first to use ether as an anesthetic, 
Dr. Wells has been more generally credited with the discovery, 
since it was through him that the process first became known 
to the world. 

In 1847, Dr. Simpson of Edinburgh discovered the anes¬ 
thetic property of chloroform. From that time, chloroform 
became the most widely used anesthetic in Europe and ether 
in America. 

The use of anesthetics made it possible to perform many 
operations that had hitherto been impossible. But the 
percentage of deaths from “ hospital gangrene ” remained 
enormously high. It was commonly believed that a wound 
had to grow worse before it could grow better, in order to 
rid the body of the poison. But there were advanced think¬ 
ers, notably Dr. Lister in England and Dr. Oliver Wendell 
Holmes in America, who believed that the sources of infec¬ 
tion were from outside the body. It remained for Louis 
Pasteur, one of the greatest of French scientists, to prove, 
in 1866, that bacteria were the cause of infection. Dr. 
Lister was the first surgeon to follow up this discovery with 
the consistent use of antiseptics in his practice of surgery. 
His work with disinfectants and antiseptics led the way to 
all the marvels of modern surgery, and he is therefore rightly 
known as the father of modern surgery. 

During our Civil War, surgery as a science was very crude. 
While anesthetics made the operations painless, the resulting 
mortality was terrible. The surgeons unwittingly infected 
the, wounds that they dressed. Ninety-nine per cent of all 
abdominal operations in those years were fatal. So were 
sixty per cent of all other major operations, such as the 
removal of an arm or a leg. 

With the development of antiseptic treatment, in the sixty 
years since Pasteur’s discovery, conditions have been almost 
reversed. Very few surgeons of this generation have ever 


262 


IN CASE OF ACCIDENT 


seen a case of “ hospital gangrene.” Nowadays, many 
abdominal operations are performed with comparative ease 
and safety. In the case of appendicitis, for example, where 
operations are performed by skillful surgeons within twenty- 
four hours after the acute trouble begins, there is practically 
no loss of life. The removal of an arm or leg is accom¬ 
plished without great danger to the patient. But better 
than that, antiseptic treatment has made it possible to 
prevent amputation in thousands of cases where it would 
formerly have been imperative. In the recent Great War, 
the Carrel-Dakin method of irrigating wounds with a non- 
irritatmg antiseptic made it possible to heal wounds that 
were considered fatal less than ten years ago. 

Truly Long and Wells, Pasteur and Lister, and all those 
patient men of science who have since refined the work of 
these discoverers, are among the greatest benefactors of 
their race. 

What are the two discoveries that made modern surgery possible ? 
Tell the story of the discovery of anesthetics. How did Lister make 
practical use of Pasteur’s discovery? Compare the work of sur¬ 
geons in the recent Great War. Who are the four men to whom 
modern surgery owes its beginnings? 


CHAPTER XVII 

THE HEALTHFUL HOME 



Ah! What avail the largest gifts of Heaven 
When drooping health and spirits go amiss ? 

— Thomson. 


Our studies in the preceding chapters have been largely 
of the care of the body. In this chapter we shall study how 


Figure 118. — A Poor Place to Live. 

This shows some “ homes ” of the poor in a large city. The houses are 
crowded between factories. There is no planning for decency, comfort, or 
health. The construction is of the cheapest quality, for the buildings may 
be torn down soon to make room for factories. 

to make the home contribute to the health of the members of 
the family. Our first concern is where to establish the home. 

263 







264 


THE HEALTHFUL HOME 


City Homes. — In providing for good city homes one of 
the most important plans is the zoning system. In the past, 
cities have grown up without planning. A man might buy 
land wherever he could and put up a building for any use he 
chose, with little restriction. As a result we have a most 
ridiculous and unhygienic mingling of residence houses and 
flat buildings with stores and factories. The zone system 
plans to protect the home from the noise, dust, smoke, foul 
odors, and street confusions and dangers which attend much 
of our industrial life. 

According to this system certain parts of the city will be 
reserved for family homes, where there will be gardens and 
playgrounds for children. Other places will allow of apart¬ 
ment houses built according to certain health-conserving 
restrictions. Schools, churches, and libraries will be near the 
residence areas and convenient to transportation yet away 
from the disturbances and dangers of machinery and traffic. 
The stores and small factories will be situated chiefly on the 
streets where cars are run. The manufactories will be located 
at certain places convenient to the means of transportation, 
yet not all grouped in one locality but scattered in various 
parts of the city near residence districts, that workmen may 
walk to their jobs and still live in comfortable and healthful 
homes. 

This method of rationally planning the development of a 
city is being used in a number of American and European 
cities. It is not generally applied to the parts of cities already 
built up, where it would require expensive alterations, but 
the newer growths are planned according to the zone system. 
It has proved satisfactory not only in large cities like New 
York and St. Louis but also in small cities and villages. It 
promises to be a most valuable means of securing healthful 
homes for city dwellers. 

In the meantime, while waiting for city zoning to secure 
well-protected places for our homes, we must choose our 


RURAL HOME SITE 


265 


location as best we can. We must consider convenience 
to work and transportation, price of rent, and general tone 
of the neighborhood as well as purity of air, absence of smoke 
and noise, and nearness to park, church, and school. 

Point out as many evils as you can in our present planless city 
building. What is city zoning? In what particulars would it 
improve our present city arrangement? To what extent is city 
zoning practicable? What considerations should guide us now in 
choosing a location for our home? 



Figure 119. — A Good Place to Live. 


A city home may be as beautiful and healthful as this if the city is prop¬ 
erly zoned so that manufacturing and business do not encroach on the 
residence areas and raise the price of land so high that a man with a mod¬ 
erate income can not afford the space for a lawn. 

Rural Home Site. — The owner of the rural home chooses 
the site largely by reason of land features. The surface 
should be fairly level and the ground well drained. The 
area should be sufficient for all the outbuildings and gardens, 
for shade and fruit trees. The water supply should be con¬ 
venient. If the climate is severe there should be protection 
from the winter winds, — either tall trees or a hill. A feature 
sometimes overlooked is the beauty of scene. The house 






266 


THE HEALTHFUL HOME 


should be so situated, if possible, as to give from porch and 
window a view over valley, meadow, field, or lake, — some¬ 
thing to bring cheer and sunshine into the lives of the home 
toilers. 

What sort of place should we choose for a rural home? Why 
should we pay attention to the outlook? 



Figure 120. — Zone the City! 


A fine residence opposite a small park has been spoiled by the building 
of apartment houses, crowding against and overshadowing it. A zoning law 
restricting the buildings along this street to single residences would have 
protected it. 

Home Construction. — When we have selected the city 
district in which we wish to reside, the question of apartment 
comes up. Among the first considerations in choosing a 
house or flat are air and light. Every room should have a 
window, opening not into a narrow shaft three or four feet 
wide, but into a large court or the wide outdoors. The more 
rooms the sun enters the better. The gas or electric light 











HOME CONSTRUCTION 


267 



should be sufficient to illuminate every passage and corner. 
Dirt hides in dark places. 

The plumbing should receive careful attention. There 
should be no wet places. The bath room should be well 
warmed in cold weather, to make a bath inviting. The 
surfaces of the tub and lavatory should be smooth, that they 


Figure 121 .—Air and Sunshine. 

A back yard in a rural home, showing what can be done to promote 
beauty and health without great expense. 

may be kept clean. The floors and walls should be even and 
tight, the more easily to free them from dirt and vermin. 
The heating arrangements should be so generous that plenty 
of fresh air can be brought in without chilling the rooms in 
winter. 

The problem of rural house construction involves most of 
these features and several additional matters. The base¬ 
ment of the farm or village house is often a weak point. 



268 


THE HEALTHFUL HOME 


It should be made dry, and rat-proof. A cement floor and 
stone or cement walls will be sufficient for this if the house 
has a well-drained site. The basement of the rural house is 
used so much for the storage of vegetables that one part of it 
should be walled off from the heating plant and kept cool in 
winter, barely above the freezing point. 

The modern house in 
a village or in the coun¬ 
try can be heated almost 
as economically by means 
of a hot air furnace or by 
hot water as by separate 
stoves in the rooms. The 
single heating plant is 
much to be preferred. It 
keeps the temperature 
more nearly even, the fire 
danger is less, the ven¬ 
tilation (especially with 
hot air furnace) is better. 
The unified plant is nec¬ 
essary if there is running 
water in the house. 

When you go flat hunt¬ 
ing what requirements shall 
you have in mind for the 
windows? for the artificial 
lights? for the plumbing? 
for the bath room and its fittings ? for the floor and walls ? for the 
heating appliances ? 

What are the attributes of a good basement? Why is a unified 
heating plant better than separate stoves ? 

The Kitchen. — Keep the kitchen clean. Grease or bits 
of food in sinks, on table, in corners or along the edges of the 
floor, decay and mold or render the kitchen altogether too 
inviting to mice and all kinds of insects. In apartment 



Figure 122. — A Hot Air Furnace. 


This system of heating a dwelling has 
the virtue of ventilating the rooms thor¬ 
oughly. A constant stream of cold air is 
brought in, v/armed and distributed 
through large pipes from the top of the 
furnace. This fresh air drives out, 
through the ventilator shaft, the old air of 
the room and takes its place. 






























FLOORS AND THEIR CARE 


269 


B ~ 


buildings, it sometimes happens that we get the overflow 
of these pests from other apartments. Traps kept set 
continuously will eventually 
rid a place of mice. Sodium 
fluorid mixed with equal 
parts of flour or talc will ef¬ 
fectually discourage water- 
bugs and other insects of the 
kitchen. (Sodium fluorid is 
the base of most of the insect 
powders.) Keep all food un¬ 
der cover, especially if there 
is danger of contamination 
by mice or insects. 

Floors and Their Care. — In 
the larger and more expensive 
houses hardwood floors are 
almost universal. On them 
are laid without fastenings 
thick rugs which are easily 
removed for cleaning. The 
smooth floors are wiped off 
with an oil mop and little 
dust is raised to pollute the 
air. The dusting is done 
with a damp or oily cloth 
which picks up the dust in¬ 
stead of flirting it around. 

The same methods could 
be followed in the smaller 
and less expensive houses. If 



Figure 123. — Hot Water Heat. 

This diagram represents a hot 
water heating plant in a dwelling 
house. A is the furnace in the base¬ 
ment. C C C are the pipes carrying 
the hot water to the radiators R R. 
D D D are the pipes returning the 
water from the radiators to the fur- 


;. B is the feed tank in the attic 
narrow hard pine flooring is which keeps the pipes always full of 
laid tight and oiled it makes water - 

a fairly hard, smooth floor on which rugs can be used and 
carpets need never be nailed down. The same care can be 


























































































270 


THE HEALTHFUL HOME 


observed in sweeping with a soft bristle brush or oil mop and 
dusting with a moist cloth. If the floors are thus treated 
there will be no damp, musty smell about the rooms and 
the air will be free from the dust that 
arises when a person walks across a car¬ 
peted floor. 

Describe an excellent house floor. How 
should it be cared for? How can a very serv¬ 
iceable floor of a similar kind be made eco¬ 
nomically ? 

Water Supply. — Nearly every city has 
its water supplied by the municipal gov¬ 
ernment — a more abundant, more eco¬ 
nomical, more wholesome supply than 
each family could provide for itself. A 
village of even a few hundred inhabit¬ 
ants should not rest content until it has 
installed a public water system. It will 
be worth many times its cost, in the im¬ 
proved hygiene of the home. The iso¬ 
lated farmer, however, must provide his 
own water supply. Though sometimes 
spring water is carried or piped to the 
house, most farmers rely on the well to 
supply house, dairy, and stable with water. This well 
water is rain water which filters through more or less soil 
and rock and takes up, among other salts, calcite (lime¬ 
stone), which makes it hard . The minerals in the water 
give it a slight flavor and to most of us are harmless, possibly 
beneficial. The problem is to keep the water free from 
surface pollution. Each place has its own particular con¬ 
ditions, but the precepts here given will usually find ap¬ 
plication. 

1. Allow no drainage from the house or barnyard wastes 
into the well. 





SEWAGE 


271 


2. Grade the ground around the well high, so that it will 
slope back a rod or more from the well. 

3. Lay the upper five or six feet of curbing in cement, 
and cement the surface back four or five feet from the edge 
of the well. 

4. Keep a tight cover 
on the well at all times. 

Enumerate as many par¬ 
ticulars as you can in which 
the public water supply is 
superior to the individual 
family wells. How does 
well water come to be hard ? 

Give rules for keeping well 
water pure. 

Sewage. — A city or 
village should establish 
a system of sewers at the 
same time it installs its 
water plant. Without a 
means of carrying off the 
waste water, the water 
supply is only half effi¬ 
cient and is likely to pro¬ 
duce undrained puddles 
and soggy soil. The iso¬ 
lated farm house must 
have its own drain pipes. 

The common practice 
is to collect the water 



Figure 125. — A Sanitary Well. 

1. What advantage is there in having 
the cement platform slope down from the 
top of the well ? 

2. Why are the upper curb stones set 
in cement ? 


IS tu 

wastes from the house in a pipe whi«h runs to a cesspool, a 
deep, covered pit. The water gradually seeps out of the 
cesspool if the bottom is porous, and the solids decompose. 
If the water does not seep out fast enough to prevent over¬ 
filling the pit, an overflow takes the clear water out at the 
side of the cesspool and carries it to the surface further down 














272 


THE HEALTHFUL HOME 


the slope. The cesspool should be located at some distance 
from the well, preferably down the slope, to prevent its con¬ 
taminating the well water. 

If no such drainage is provided the waste water is likely 
to be thrown out by the kitchen door, making a wet soil and 
attracting flies. We can not be too particular about avoiding 
such unhygienic practices. 

Explain why the full benefit of a <swater system can not be had 
without sewers. Describe a sewer suitable for a farm house. With¬ 
out such a drain pipe what unhygienic practice is the family likely 
to adopt? What caution should be observed in the location of the 
cesspool ? 

The Rural Toilet. — The problem of the toilet for the 
house in which there is no running water is great. In the 
summer there is the ever present danger of the spread of 
infection by the flies. Great pains should be taken in the 
construction of the outbuilding to make it fly-proof. In 
these days of cement that is not impossible. Whenever there 
is an intestinal infection in the family, — diarrhea, dysentery, 
typhoid, — a strong disinfectant should be sprinkled in the 
vault. Quicklime, milk of lime, chlorid of lime or creosote 
is suitable. If the vault is deep a little earth, ashes, or lime 
will suffice. 

A chemical toilet has recently come into use which is of 
great value in rural homes. It can be installed within the 
house, in the basement or in a special toilet room. The 
expense of the installation is not great and the cost of main¬ 
tenance is small. The contents are disinfected and decom¬ 
posed by a chemical agent. 

What serious danger his an outdoor toilet in summer? What 
can be done to minimize this danger? What advantages has a 
chemical toilet? 

The Bath Room.—There is little difficulty in keeping 
the bath room ever serviceable in a well-heated house where 
there is running water. But in a house not so equipped 


THE BATH ROOM 


273 



Figure 126. — Her Back Yard. 

A village or city home with a few feet of yard space can be made a beau¬ 
tiful and healthful place for rearing children. 

the temptation is not to bathe. There should always be 
some provision in the plans of a house for the bath. A 




274 


THE HEALTHFUL HOME 


small room should be set apart for this and furnished with a 
little heating stove. A bath tub with a drain could be 
installed even if there is no running water. On regular 
days the room could be warmed and buckets of hot water 
brought, so that every member of the family could bathe. 
Where there is some inconvenience about the bath there 
should be especial care taken to train the young people in 
the custom of bathing so that regularity of habit will help 
to overcome natural inertia. 

Why does the poorly heated house require especial attention to 
bathing conveniences? Suggest what could be done to train the 
children in the bathing habit. 

Garbage. — The disposal of garbage in cities is discussed 
in the next chapter. In small villages and on farms the 
table and kitchen refuse is fed to the chickens and pigs. 
This is a good and economical use to make of it. There are, 
however, some precautions to be observed in handling the 
garbage. It should never be spilled about, for it will breed 
flies and attract rats. The garbage receptacles should be 
covered and should be cleaned daily. The smell from them 
in many farm houses is disgraceful. The feeding troughs 
are also likely to breed flies and attract rats. They should 
be kept out of the mud and cleaned when the animals have 
emptied them. It is not necessary that a pig-pen produce 
a stench offensive many rods distant. 

What good use does the farmer make of garbage? What pre¬ 
cautions should he observe in handling it? 

Stable Manure. — In cities where a man who keeps horses 
may easily create a nuisance for his many neighbors by keep¬ 
ing an untidy stable, the laws provide that he must keep the 
premises clean, and put the manure in tight boxes, where it 
stays until it is hauled away. In the country, on the other 
hand, the farmer is supposed to injure no one but himself if 
his stable is ill kept, and therefore he is allowed to manage 


IN CAMP 


275 


it just as he chooses. He sometimes does not manage it 
well. 

His manure pile is a breeding place for flies, which may 
swarm into his own kitchen and dining room and overflow 
to his neighbor’s. A large part of the fertilizing value of the 
manure may be lost in weathering. The manure should be 
kept away from the flies and protected from the rains until 
it is hauled to the fields. Then the sooner it is turned under 
the soil the better. Detailed instructions that every owner 
of live stock ought to be guided by are contained in Bulletin 
851, United States Department of Agriculture, Washington, 
D. C. The pamphlet may be had for the asking. 

How should manure be cared for until it is spread on the field ? 

Flies. — We should not only take every precaution to 
avoid breeding flies but should also kill them whenever possi¬ 
ble. An effective and cheap poison is a spoonful of formalde- 
hyd in a pint of water with a little sugar. Pour it into small 
dishes and set the dishes where flies congregate. Fly traps 
are for sale in all the hardware stores. Buy or make several 
and set them outside the door — don’t wait for the flies to 
come in. If you are diligent you can poison and trap nearly 
all the flies on the premises. The pests should be killed 
especially in the spring and early summer, for each pair 
allowed to live may have millions of offspring before the 
summer is over. Of course the swatter should be used when¬ 
ever there is opportunity. In addition to killing the flies 
we should keep the premises so clean that the insects will 
have no place to breed. No scrap of food should be left 
lying around in which eggs can be laid and on which the 
young can feed. 

Explain three ways of killing flies. What more should we do to 
prevent the fly nuisance ? 

In Camp. — The temporary home we sometimes make 
for ourselves in summer, the camp or the rural boarding 


276 


THE HEALTHFUL HOME 


house, has much the same problems as we meet in our per¬ 
manent homes, but with variations. We sometimes think that 
in vacation we may ease up on our hygienic regulations. The 
fact is we need to take even greater care of our health in the 
unusual vacation surroundings. We are more likely to be ex¬ 
posed to disease in such places than at home. For in the re¬ 
sort or camp there are not usually the conveniences for taking 
such good care of the food and water as we have at home. 

Flies are often abundant when we have no means of pro¬ 
tection from them. The toilet facilities are likely to be of the 
crudest and most unhygienic type. The swimming pools 
are sometimes found to be contaminated with sewage. It be¬ 
hooves us to investigate all these conditions when we choose 
a vacation place and not accept dangers which we would 
shun at home. There is an abundance of good resorts whose 
hygienic arrangements are beyond reproach. In planning our 
own camp we should study a good camp manual to get sug¬ 
gestions of ways in which a camp can be kept healthful. 

Why is there need of taking particular care of our health during 
vacation? In what ways are summer resorts inferior in health 
arrangements to our homes ? What is more important at a summer 
resort than the facilities for boating and fishing? 

The School. — The following is a very much contracted 
form of a statement of sanitary requirements for rural schools 
made by a committee of doctors and teachers: 

1. The school should be so situated that it is free from 
noise, is easily accessible, is on ground well drained and free 
from mud and rock, with trees, grass, and flowers and open 
room for play. 

2. The school building, even if only a one-teacher school, 
should have an entrance hall, a cloak room for boys and one 
for girls, and in addition to the class room a small room for 
sudden sickness or accident, for library, for consultation, and 
another small room with cooking facilities and a work-bench 
and tools. 


THE SCHOOL 


277 


3. The heating should be by a basement furnace, but if by 
stove in the room the stove must have a jacket. Connected 
with the heating apparatus should be a ventilating scheme 
by which an abundance of fresh air is warmed as it enters 
and the air in exit taken 
out near the floor. The 
temperature should be 
kept at about 68 degrees. 

4. The lighting of the 
room should be by win¬ 
dows at the pupil’s left, 
with no windows in front, 
and at the rear and right 
only if they are small and 
high. The window shades 
should be translucent to 
admit light but not direct 
sunshine. Blackboards 
should be opposite the 
windows, never between 
them. To reflect the light 
the ceiling and upper 
walls should be light col¬ 
ored. 

5. The best desks are 
individual, movable, and 
adjusted to the size of the 
pupil. 

6. The cleanliness of 
the room should be se¬ 



Figure 127. — A Jacketed Stove in a 
One-room School. 


1. Why is there a few inches of open 
space between the jacket and the floor? 

2. Why does the ventilating shaft reach 
down nearly to the floor instead of open¬ 
ing near the ceiling ? 

3. How could the air of the room easily 
be kept moist ? 

4. Why does the stove pipe run through 
the ventilating shaft ? 

cured by damp sweeping (wet sawdust, oily broom, etc.) and 
by dusting with damp or oily cloth and by frequent scrub¬ 
bing, sunning, and airing. The pupils should have conven¬ 
iences for washing before eating, after going to the toilet 
etc.; and individual paper towels should be used. 






















278 


THE HEALTHFUL HOME 



7. Pure drinking water should be convenient for everyone 
at all times, from either a sanitary fountain or paper cups. 
No common cup should be allowed. 

8. The toilets should be strictly sanitary, clean, free from 
offensive writing, and screened from flies. 


P. & A. photo. 

Figure 128. — Training for Health. 

These school children are learning under the direction of a physical 
training instructor to stand straight and to move rhythmically and 
gracefully. 


Unfortunately many of our schools are not provided with 
even these conditions, which are set forth as the minimum 
required. We should aim at something much better and 
try to convince those in charge of the schools of the need 
of providing for the health of the children as well as for the 
mind training. Each pupil should conceive the ideal of a 
sanitary and beautiful school and should be expected to 
do his share toward making his own school such a place. 






CHAPTER XVIII 
THE GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 


That is the best government which desires to make the people happy, 
and knows how to make them happy. 


— Macaulay. 


Individually we can do many things to keep ourselves in 
health, but when we have done all that we are able to do there 
remains much that must be done by the cooperation of all 
of us. Our only organized means of such cooperation is the 
government, municipal, state, national. 

Water Supply. — In the country each family provides 
its own supply of water, but in the cities and large villages 
we cooperate, usually as a municipal government, to provide 
water for all of us. We citizens have no care about the water 
supply other than to avoid waste. We elect officers who hire 
engineers to look after all the details. Our concern is to 
elect officers who will diligently and honestly administer 
the work. However, it is well for all of us to have in mind 
some ideal of a water system and to support the officials 
in any improvement projected. 

Nearly all the cities in the western part of the United States, 
from Denver to the Pacific, get their water supply from the 
mountains. They choose a stream high in the mountains, 
fence in its basin to keep out contaminating intruders, dam 
the outlet to make a reservoir, and conduct the water to 
the city mains. Often considerable power is obtained from 
the high pressure of the water. 

279 




280 


THE GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 


Cities along the Great Lakes have an inexhaustible supply 
of unusually good water if they only keep it free from sewage. 
The cities themselves are learning to take care of their sewage ; 
but the vessels, that ply the lakes, increasing in number, are a 
serious source of contamination. They must be stopped from 
dumping their wastes into the water supply. 



Figure 129. — Community Service. 


The wagons here lined up for inspection go through the city streets col¬ 
lecting the ashes, which they haul to the dump where land is being made 
for a city park. When the wagon is loaded a canvas is fastened over it to 
prevent the scattering and blowing about of the ashes. 

Many small cities get their water from artesian wells. 
It is free from germs but is usually hard and is too limited 
in quantity for large communities. The large cities, like 
Cincinnati and St. Louis, get their supply from the great 
rivers flowing past. The water is muddy and contaminated 
with germs. It is pumped into large settling basins, where 




SEWAGE 


281 


many of the bacteria are carried to the bottom with the 
mud, and is also purified by chemical means. Most of the 
eastern cities are supplied by artesian wells or by streams 
in the hills or mountains. Though water of some cities is 
provided by private corporations, we are generally agreed 
that the water supply is too vital a matter to be entrusted 



Figure 130. — Garbage Collectors. 


The garbage of Chicago is collected in tight metal boxes in which it is 
conveyed to the rendering plant, where the grease is extracted and the 
residue made into fertilizer. 

to corporations conducted for gain. The municipalities 
usually own and manage their water supply. 

Name three ways in which cities get their water supply and give 
examples of each. Why does the municipality usually own and 
manage its water supply? 

Sewage. — We have allowed sewage from.cities and waste 
from factories to pollute our streams till the fish have been 
killed and the water has become unfit for use and is a menace 
to our health. At last some cities are waking up to the fact 








282 


THE GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 



Figure 131. — United States Inspection. 


A government inspector is at work on 
hog carcasses. He is examining the kid¬ 
ney. There are various glands through¬ 
out the body which give early evidence of 
disease. Knowing the locations of these 
glands, the veterinarian cuts into them to 
see if they are sound, thus' assuring the 
wholesomeness of the meat. 


that this pollution of the 
streams is unnecessary. 
They are pumping their 
sewage into large settling 
basins. The sediment is 
a valuable fertilizer. The 
water is not only clarified 
but also purified and 
turned back into streams 
which have become once 
more alive with fish and 
are beautiful places for 
recreation. There is no 
excuse for our continuing 
the dirty, wasteful system 
of throwing our fertilizer 
away and making vile the 
waterways which would 
otherwise be beautiful. 
The duty of every man, 
woman, and child is to de¬ 
mand such a disposal of 
our sewage as will be 
sanitary for the whole 
country as well as for our 
own immediate neighbor¬ 
hood. 

Garbage is salvaged in 
our best-managed cities, 
i.e., it is turned to a prof¬ 
itable use instead of be¬ 
ing thrown away. The 
fat in it is extracted and 
the residue used for fer¬ 
tilizer. 





FOOD INSPECTION 


283 



What is the common 
method of disposing of city 
sewage ? What harm results 
from this? How should it 
be treated ? What good use 
of garbage is made in large 
cities? Why do city ordi¬ 
nances require garbage and 
ashes to be kept separate? 


Food Inspection.— 

When people grow their 
own vegetables and fruit, 
raise their own chickens, 
butcher the calves and 
pigs they have fed, they 
are their own food inspec¬ 
tors and can see that only 
wholesome products come 
into their kitchen. and 
go on their table. But 
when our fruit comes from 
Michigan, our chickens 
from Texas, our pork 
from Iowa, our beef from 
Colorado, our lamb from 
Montana, and a dozen 
other things from a dozen 
other states, we need gov¬ 
ernment inspectors to 
watch the stockyards, and 
municipal inspectors to watch the storehouses and retail 
markets so that only wholesome food is offered for our use. 

The inspection at its best is superficial. The force of 
inspectors, if it were twice as great as it is, could not examine 
all the food that goes through the packinghouses and com¬ 
mission markets. And it is not necessary that everything 


Figure 132. —The Stamp of Approval. 

A government official is stamping a 
beef carcass which has passed all govern¬ 
ment tests and whose wholesomeness is 
thus assured. 





284 


THE GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 


should be carefully inspected. Nearly everything handled 
is in good condition, and much of that which is bad can be 
so easily detected that customers will not take it. 

Yet our pure food laws and inspectors are indispensable 
and we should make it possible, by larger appropriations, for 
them to do their work more thoroughly. So long as our 
IF 

THESE CASES THESE CASES 


MAD BEEN REPORTED WOULD NEVER HAVE. OCCURRED 



Figure 133. — Sore Throat. 

A few cases of severe sore throat occurred on some dairy farms. The 
milk produced on these farms became contaminated and carried the germs 
to city customers, many of whom contracted the disease. 

economic organization rests on the principle that the desire 
of greater profit is the best incentive to business, we shall find 
it necessary to watch the eager dealer to see that an over¬ 
weening desire for profits does not lead him to defraud us 
even to the degree of endangering our health and lives. 

In the stockyards one of the most valuable services of the 
inspectors is to see that no diseased animals are slaughtered 
for food. They should be made into soap and fertilizer. 
Parts of the carcass of the animal butchered are inspected 





BUILDING REGULATIONS 


285 


while it is being cut up, to see that it is free from parasites. 
Inspection is made of the cured meat to see that foods and 
package articles are correctly labeled. A large number of 
inspectors are kept busy checking up on these productions to 
insure honest dealing and to prevent the use of unwhole¬ 
some preservatives. 

Cold storage plants are visited to see that nothing spoiled 
is kept for the market. If the inspector finds rotten fish 
or poultry or meat he pours kerosene or a colored liquid 
over it to insure its being sent to the waste factory instead 
of to the market. It is impossible even to list here the 
services of the food inspector. They would be greater if we 
supported the department more generously. 

Why do we need food inspection, while our fathers did not? 
How do our methods and ideals of business tempt dealers to handle 
unfit food ? Name as many particulars as you can of the inspector’s 
work. How does an inspector make sure that the food he condemns 
does not get to the market ? 

Building Regulations. — After food comes shelter. In the 
cities where we crowd one another and live in buildings owned 
by others we need protection against buildings which are 
unhygienic or which endanger our lives. So we have building 
ordinances insuring some degree of protection from fire 
providing for light and air, requiring sanitary sewerage and 
safe lighting. The buildings in which the well-to-do live are 
well constructed and have every provision for safety, cleanli¬ 
ness, light, and air. 

But the buildings in which the very poor are quartered 
are commonly in a wretched condition, dilapidated, dirty, 
dark, infested with vermin and disease germs. Their owners 
fight every ordinance for improvement, because it would 
mean less profit to them. They are the friends of the law¬ 
maker and often have things their way. Infectious diseases 
often start in the unsanitary tenements and spread to the 
better-to-do neighbors. For their own protection, as well 


286 


THE GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 


as because the poor are weak and need their help, those 
better off should insist that unsanitary dwellings be torn 
down and buildings fit for self-respecting citizens of the com¬ 
munity be put up in their stead. The ideal should be good 
housing, not the utmost profit. 

Village and rural homes are often far from what they 
should be, but their shortcomings more often arise out of 



Figure 134 . — Crowded. 


In this basement room, 6^ by 10 feet, a man, his wife, and five children 
sleep; a condition of wretched housing which ought not to be permitted in 
any city. 

ignorance and poverty than out of greed. Where ground 
is plentiful and light and air abundant, the] house room is 
sometimes cramped, the ventilation poor, and the light bad. 
Worse are the sanitary provisions of bath and toilet. But 
the ideals of better dwellings are taking hold in the country 
&s well as in the city. As fast as education prevails, the work- 





HOSPITALS AND SANATORIA 


287 



ers in shop or on the land are demanding and getting homes in 
harmony with higher standards of life. 

Why is it necessary that the government establish building 
regulations? Why are the ordinances so often imperfect and so 
poorly carried out? Why is it everyone’s concern that the poor 
be decently housed? Why do rural homes so often lack the essen¬ 
tials of good dwellings? If you are acquainted with village or 
country homes point out as many particulars as you can in which 
they fall short of what they might be within reasonable expense. 
Point out the unhygienic conditions of any city residences you know. 


Figure 135. -— A Healthful Home. 

This inexpensive home in a suburb expresses good ideals of light, air, and 
beauty of surroundings. 

Hospitals and Sanatoria. — The hospital, built for the 
purpose of caring for the sick, has conveniences which can not 
be had in our private homes. Nursing can be more eco¬ 
nomically done there. A doctor is always at hand in case of 
emergency. The operating rooms are scrupulously clean. 
We recognize the value of hospitals by establishing them in 
every city. There are private hospitals for those who are 
able to pay for their services and there are public hospitals 
free for those who need them. 




288 


THE GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 



In some places there are separate hospitals for cases of 
certain infectious diseases. It is especially desirable that 
we should take to the hospital cases of diseases which are to 
be quarantined. A case of diphtheria or scarlet fever or 
measles in the home endangers the other members of the 
family and interferes very much with the activities of the 


Figure 136. — A Fresh Air Hospital. 

This is an aeroplane view of the Pottenger Sanatorium of Southern Cali¬ 
fornia. The many small bungalows would lead you to infer that the sana¬ 
torium treats what kind of cases? In the main building, besides the par¬ 
lors and dining room, are offices, consulting rooms, and private rooms for 
patients. In what particulars would a patient receive better care in such a 
sanatorium than in his private home ? 

household. In the hospital it can be better cared for and 
the members of the family can go on about their work with 
no interruption. 

Tuberculosis spreads from one member of the family to 
another because the sick one stays at home and infects those 



HOSPITALS AND SANATORIA 


289 



near him. If he were in a sanatorium he would be taught 
to avoid spreading his disease and would have a better chance 
of getting well. There are people in every community who 
are not bedridden and yet, because of disease or injury, are 
unable to work and are a burden and often a menace to others. 
In a sanatorium they would be well cared for and would leave 
their friends free to work. 


Figure 137. — Homes for Health. 

A view of a few of the bungalows of the Pottenger Sanatorium in South¬ 
ern California. Just behind the point of view is the main building contain¬ 
ing the dining room and parlors, offices, and private rooms for patients. 
What advantages superior to those of a common home would such a sana¬ 
torium offer to patients suffering from lung disease ? 

The spread of infectious diseases would be very much 
curtailed, the recovery of the sick would be more rapid, and 
the energy of the workers more economically used if we made 
a practice of caring for the sick and disabled in hospitals 
and sanatoria. Those who are able to pay should be allowed 
to choose such accommodation as they wish, and pay for it. 
Those unable to pay should be taken as the guests of the 
community and given the best of care as a measure of wel¬ 
fare to the whole community. 





290 THE GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 

Why can the sick be better cared for in hospitals than in private 
homes? Why should cases of infectious diseases especially be 
treated in hospitals? What can a consumptive do to safeguard 
members of his family ? Show that it would be a measure of econ¬ 
omy to the community to provide hospital and sanatorium care 
for its members. 

Health Centers. — We are beginning to recognize how 
ignorant most of us are about hygiene and how much can 


To this rural “health center” supported by public funds mothers bring 
their babies for advice and instruction in their care, — feeding, bathing, 
dressing, etc. On other days the doctors and nurses meet older patients. 

be done for us by a little instruction in caring for our health. 
Therefore some state and some municipal officers are main¬ 
taining stations where doctors and nurses give advice and 
help to those who come. Mothers are instructed about 
feeding and bathing and dressing their babies. Ailing or 
underweight children are examined and their parents advised 
about their care and nourishment. The tuberculous are 
taught how to take care of themselves to promote their re¬ 
covery and avoid infecting others. Children growing up 
crippled by infantile paralysis are treated and at least a 






HEALTH CENTERS 


291 



partial use of their limbs restored. In times of distress pure 
milk for babies is given to those who can not buy. But most 
important of all are the lessons in health which the visitors 


Figure 139. — Medical Inspection. 

The school doctor is testing the chest of this anemic girl to see if her 
lungs are sound. 

receive with the personal admonition of the doctors and 
nurses in charge of the center. 

Why have some state and some municipal officers established 
health centers in the community ? What is done for the people at 






292 


THE GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 



the health centers ? Where there is no health center do the people 
do without this serivce, or do they procure it in some other way? 

Medical and Dental Service in Schools. — The spread of 
infectious diseases in school, the low physical condition of 
many children and the deplorable state of their teeth have 


Figure 140. — Measurements. 

The school doctor measuring and weighing an undernourished boy. 

compelled us to bring the doctor, the dentist, and the nurse 
into the school. 

In some schools the doctor makes only a partial examina¬ 
tion of pupils who have been absent or who have been ill, 
to determine whether they may continue in school without 
menacing the health of others. In some schools the doctor 
makes a careful examination of every pupil who seems not 
to be in good health and advises the parents about the care 





QUARANTINE 


293 


of the child ; about operations needed, such as the removal of 
adenoids and tonsils; and about defective vision or hearing. 

The nurse, with the parent’s consent, takes the child to the 
surgeon for operation or treatment, or to an oculist for eye 
examination. The nurse goes to the home to urge the parent 
to carry out the directions of the doctor or the dentist, as 
well as to visit sick and absent pupils. 

The school dentist commonly examines the children’s 
teeth and sends a written statement of their condition to the 
parents, with a recommendation for treatment. In some 
schools, however, the dentist is employed at public expense 
to do the work needed on the children’s teeth. 

The medical, dental, and nursing work done in the schools 
has resulted in very great improvement in the health of the 
children. It should receive more generous support so that it 
can be more thoroughly done. 

For what reasons are doctors sent to inspect children in school? 
What is the minimum service the doctor renders, intended only for 
the protection of the healthy children? What more extensive 
service is given in some schools ? State the common work of school 
dental inspection. What more does the dentist do in some schools ? 
What does the nurse do to double the effectiveness of the doctor 
and the dentist? Do you think the doctor or the dentist or the 
nurse could have been of any service to any member of your class 
within the last week? 

Quarantine. — In many diseases we keep the sick away 
from those who are well, that the latter may escape the con¬ 
tagion. The precaution is quite unnecessary in some dis¬ 
eases. Yellow fever and malaria are carried by certain mos¬ 
quitoes only, and so the patients should be quarantined by 
screening. People can visit such patients without danger. 
Visitors are not usually excluded from the rooms of those 
afflicted with intestinal infections. 

We quarantine cases of disease which affect the throat, 
lungs, or skin, because the. germs of these diseases are more 
likely to be communicated to people coming near. A cough 


294 


THE GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 



or a sneeze throws germs from the nose or throat into the 
air several feet away — to be taken up by the visitor. A 
case of smallpox is usually removed from the home and 
quarantined in special hospital or isolated house. 


Figure 141. — Guarding the Threshold. 

These officials are inspecting immigrants at Ellis Island to make sure 
that no infectious diseases are brought in. 

Flies may get germs on their feet and carry them to other 
people. So it is very important in quarantining to shut out 
the flies. 

A quarantine at a port of entrance to a country is more 
strict than a house quarantine. Every communicable dis¬ 
ease which is not already prevalent in the country must be 
stopped at the gates. 

Quarantine is sometimes a great inconvenience to people. 
By its provisions in some diseases (diphtheria* scarlet fever) 
well people who are living in the same house with a case 




ANIMAL PESTS 


295 


of sickness may not go to their work. If we should give 
hospital care to the sick it would remove this inconvenience. 
We are usually too slack about observing the rules of quaran¬ 
tine. The rules were made to protect those who are well. 
We should all consider it our patriotic duty to abide strictly 
by the quarantine regulations. Every time we break a 
regulation, we endanger the health of others. Breaking 
quarantine is a punishable offense; it is treason to our 
community. One who wantonly gives a disease to another 
is a traitor. 

What is the purpose of quarantine? What sort of diseases are 
quarantined in the home? What sort are not? How is smallpox 
usually quarantined? Why is a quarantine at a port of entrance 
much more strict than a house quarantine? How could we avoid 
the inconvenience of house quarantine? How will conscientious 
people regard quarantine ? • 

Animal Pests. — Rats and mice and flies destroy hundreds 
of millions of dollars’ worth of food in our country every year. 
More than that they are the agents by which disease germs 
are spread. We ought to exterminate the pests. When 
the bubonic plague appeared in San Francisco in 1900 and 
it was known that the germs were carried from one person 
to another by fleas, and that flea-infested rats carried the 
plague from house to house, the city authorities and even 
surgeons assigned by the United States government gave 
their attention to catching the rats. And a good job they 
made of it, too. They taught us that it is possible for us to 
free ourselves from these pests if we go at it seriously. But 
it is not a campaign in which an individual can accomplish 
much alone. We must all cooperate. 

Our government is organized to do the work which needs 
the concerted effort of all the citizens. Every municipality 
should make a campaign, a continuous warfare against ver¬ 
min of all sorts. Flies, mosquitoes, rats, and mice could be 
reduced to such an insignificant number that they would 


296 


THE GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 


not annoy us, and we should be in better health and get more 
satisfaction out of life. It would require only a well-directed 
warfare and adequate support. 

Most of these pests are worse in the country than in the 
city. And there the extermination of them depends more on 



Figure 142 . — The Paper Burner. 


This man goes through the streets and alleys picking up and burning in 
his iron cage the papers and other light combustibles which litter the way. 
A city which is not neat will not be sanitary. 

the efforts of the individual. If the farmer would once get 
the idea that he does not need to pay a heavy toll of his 
crop to the rats, that breeding flies is not a necessary part of 
farm activity, he could find ways of getting rid of the pests. 
It would require some thought and attention and a little 
increased expense in building. But it would richly repay 
all it cost. Farmers’ Bulletin No. 896 and Bulletin No. 33, 
Biological Survey, ought to be in the hands of every farmer 
and of every city householder too. 




NUISANCE AND WORSE 


297 


Make a list of as many pests as you can that are known or sus¬ 
pected of carrying disease germs. Why can we not free ourselves 
from them by our individual effort? What reasons have we for 
thinking that government action would be successful? Could 
the government accomplish much without the general support of 
the citizens? How is the rural problem different from that of the 
city ? What is your duty in the matter ? 

Nuisance and Worse. — We commonly think of smoke, 
dust, vile smells, and noise as nuisances. They are, but they 
are worse than mere sources of annoyance. They impair 
our health so insidiously that we do not notice it. Sanatoria 
are built in the country where it is quiet, where grass and 
trees prevent flying dust, where the air is pure and invigorat¬ 
ing. All these desirable things are just as good for us who 
are working every day as for those who are recuperating in 
sanatoria. 

Our industrial life has been so completely devoted to 
making money that we have overlooked the end of it all — 
wholesome living. True we have smoke inspectors whose 
labors have changed the pall which hangs over the city to a 
lighter gray. Some of our streets are kept fairly free from 
dust. If some of the offensive smells have been abated others 
as bad have taken their place; and the noise is worse. 

Of course we can not free our labors from everything offen¬ 
sive, but when we are subject day and night to the nuisances 
that blight our lives, that make our children's complexions 
sallow, it is time to think of the ends of living. Is the profit 
of the industry worth the life it costs? Should we not have 
a better community, more diligent, more appreciative of 
beauty, more devoted to justice, if we freed our homes from 
the depressing nuisances which we have allowed our indus¬ 
tries to impose? The means can be found if we have the 
ideal strong in our minds ; if we make the demand. 

How does smoke harm us? How does dust injure us? There 
are no disease germs in bad odors ; how can they affect our health ? 
What harm is in noise? How can the smoke nuisance be abated? 


298 


THE GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 



Can we have industry without smoke and poisonous gases in the 
atmosphere? What nuisances have you observed in your neigh¬ 
borhood? What could be done to decrease or abolish them? 
Why must the government intervene, why not let the individual 
citizen deal with the nuisances? 


Figure 143. — Clean the Streets! 

This “power flusher” is designed not simply to lay the dust; it throws 
out a sheet of water with such force as to wash much of the dirt from the 
middle of the street down into the gutter, where it is swept up and carted 
away. Clean streets promote health. 

Protection for the Workman. — For many years there 
has been a growing, and lately a rapidly increasing govern¬ 
ment regulation of industries, to give protection to the 
workman. The number of hours which constitute a day's 
work has gradually been cut down, partly through govern¬ 
ment action. It was once fourteen or fifteen, then twelve, 
ten, nine. Now eight is generally recognized as * the fair 
number, with a shorter day for unusually hazardous or strenu¬ 
ous occupations. Machinery must be guarded. Poisonous 




PROTECTION FOR THE WORKMAN 


299 



fumes and gritty dust must be drawn away from the work¬ 
man by ventilators. Unnecessary poisons (yellow phos¬ 
phorus) must not be used. When poisons are used work¬ 
men must be cautioned how to protect themselves. Toilet 
facilities must not be overcrowded. 


Figure 144. — Drudgery That Destroys. 

Thirteen-year-old Mary, whose eyes are in bad condition, has to work 
evenings on artificial flowers. One of the worst features of “sweated” 
work is that the children can not be protected from its harmful effects. 

Neither women nor children should be employed at night 
nor at certain hazardous occupations. Only a few years 
ago children as young as six or eight years old were worked 
all day in factories. The age limit has gradually been raised 
till now sixteen is the generally recognized minimum, though 
some states lag behind. 

All these government regulations aim at conserving the 
workman’s health and life. They are abundantly justified 
by their results. Children are in school, building up their 
minds and bodies instead of wearing their lives away in the 






300 


THE GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 


tending of machines. Women are better mothers and 
better home makers because they are not dragged down by 
exhausting labor. Men have more leisure to live and to 
learn how to live. They are more upstanding citizens. 

Yet much remains to be done. Arms and eyes and life 
itself are still too cheap. Certain kinds of business are 

simply machines for turning 
out profits, and in them the 
workman’s life is worn out by 
grinding toil or snuffed out 
by sudden accident. The 
health of the worker will not 
be properly conserved until 
we put human life ahead of 
profits and make the end and 
aim of all industry the main¬ 
tenance of strength, the in¬ 
crease in skill, the develop¬ 
ment of mind. 

Why should the worker need 
special protection? Name as 
many ways as you can in which 
the government has protected 
him. What have workmen in 
voluntary organizations done to 
protect themselves ? What good 
results can you notice from gov¬ 
ernment regulations in industry? 
What can you do now for the 
health of the factory worker? When you grow up if you become a 
workman, what will you do for your own protection? Do you 
know of any protective regulations for rural workers ? 

Recreation Centers. Many cities have made extensive 
provision for the recreation of their citizens, — none too 
much. Rural communities are catching the idea and by 
voluntary organization or by official action are inducing 
people to use their leisure for the improvement of their bodies 



Figure 145. — Child Labor. 


This boy of a well-to-do family is 
made to work when he should be in 
school. The knife with which he 
tops the beets is a dangerous tool for 
a young boy. 



RECREATION CENTERS 


301 


and minds. Parks, playgrounds, bathing beaches, public 
gymnasiums, camps, forest preserves, boats, play directors, 
competitive games, — all are provided by public funds to 
encourage people to make their recreation a wholesome, 
health-giving influence. 



Figure 146. — Filling In. 


The wastes of the city which do not decay and become offensive, the 
ashes, earth, and stone, are dumped into the lake to make the foundation for 
a park. This rubbish will be covered with soil. Then shade trees, grass, 
and flowers will make a beautiful spot where the city dwellers will come to 
enjoy the fresh, pure air from the lake. 

The temptation to the public official is to make a show 
thing rather than a thing of service, — a park with a fine 
landscape effect and elegant buildings, a place to be enjoyed 
by one bowling through in a fine car or cantering along the 
saddle path. Beauty of landscape is desirable, but the 
health of the men from the shops and factories and offices 
and of their families is the first consideration. The rec¬ 
reation place must be easily accessible. Therefore there 









302 THE GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 

should be in a large city many small parks with play appara¬ 
tus for children, with tennis courts, with open spaces and 
benches in cozy nooks. No large park can equal these for 
service. And these small parks must be under the super¬ 
vision of attendants who sympathize with their purpose and 
will try to make them serve the needs of the community. 


Figure 147. — A Public Playground. 

Is there any good reason why every city, large or small, should not have 
such a play place ? 

Of great value are the outlying parks also, like certain 
forest preserves, in which a troop of boy or girl scouts can 
build a fire and cook supper or camp for a day or two. Here 
are opportunities for boating and swimming, for skating and 
skiing; ball fields and conveniences for group picnics ; quiet 
paths for bird lovers, and secluded nooks where the friend 
of flowers can find his silent acquaintances. 

What recreation centers are there in your neighborhood ? What 
others have you visited? Why are a few small parks more service¬ 
able than one large park? Do you know of any place where you 









LICENSED TO PRACTICE 


303 


and a company of friends would be welcome to camp ? Where 
could you go for a picnic ? In winter is there a swimming tank or a 
gymnasium accessible to you ? 


Licensed to Practice. — In its work of safeguarding the 
community the state government has established certain 
regulations for those who administer medicine. Druggists, 



Figure 148. — A Lake in Deer Park, Cook County (Chicago). 


Hundreds of acres have been bought by the county commissioners, that 
the trees may be preserved and the land kept as a recreation ground for 
the citizens. 

dentists, and physicians, before they are licensed to practice, 
must have had certain educational qualifications and also 
must pass an examination given by the state to prove that 
they are qualified to do the work they undertake. The 
state boards of examiners, who are authorized to issue the 
licenses, have gradually raised their standards until now in 
most states a license to practice is evidence that its holder 
has had good training. 

In choosing a doctor we should be governed not so much 
by the social qualities of the physician as by his professional 
ability. The doctor to whom his fellow practitioners go for 









304 


THE GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 


advice and help is pretty sure to be unusually able. When 
we have made our residence in a neighborhood we should 
try to learn (not from Tom, Dick, and Harry, but from dis¬ 
criminating people who have facts behind their opinion) 
of an able and trustworthy physician. Then when we have 
need of medical service we should go to him and follow his 
directions. It is poor policy to run from one doctor to 
another, or to think nothing about a physician until the need 
is urgent, then take the first one that appears. 

In nearly all large cities there are a few renegade doctors, 
or charlatans, who prey upon ignorant sufferers. They 
advertise “ to cure where others fail,” “ no cure no pay,” 
“specialists for men,” “nerve specialists,” etc. They are 
unscrupulous frauds who do the community great harm. 
Sometimes one is arrested and punished for illegal practice, 
but usually they hold a license to practice medicine and are 
sufficiently crafty not to violate the letter of the law. Rep¬ 
utable physicians do not advertise; avoid one who does. 
Any physician who advertises is below the average in his 
profession. 

Besides the regular, licensed physicians there are other 
practitioners; such as Christian Scientists, osteopaths, 
chiropractors, naprapaths, etc. There is no law against 
their practicing their arts or their beliefs, but unless they 
pass the examinations and receive a license they have not 
the same legal standing as physicians. A licensed physician 
may practice any of these arts if he likes. The laws do not 
prescribe any method of treatment; they only try to pro¬ 
vide that physicians shall receive adequate preparation for 
their work. Most of these other practitioners are not li¬ 
censed physicians but in some states do hold a license per¬ 
mitting them to practice within the limit of their cult. 

What assurance have we that a physician is well trained in his 
profession? How can one know what physicians are unusually 
capable? How can one tell what “ doctors ” to avoid? Why 


PATENT MEDICINES ” 


305 


u 


is it advisable to choose a family physician before his services are 
needed? Is there any law forbidding healers of various cults to 
cure disease? How is the regular physician’s standing in law differ¬ 
ent from that of the irregular practitioner’s? How can any practi¬ 
tioner acquire the legal status of a physician? 

“ Patent Medicines.” — There are certain concoctions 
sold under more or less fancy trade names and intended for 



Figure 149.. — A School Playground. 

How much better for the children to be here than in the street! In the 
five years preceding 1920 about two thousand children in the United States 
were killed by automobiles, and the number is increasing. 

use by the sick without a physician’s prescription. The 
sick man is to be his own physician, diagnose his own ail¬ 
ment, and cure it by using the “ patent medicine.” The 
“ patent medicine ” is supposed by the unwary to be a 
secret preparation containing especially valuable drugs, 
whose curative properties the manufacturers have discovered 
and which they are glad (for a small financial consideration) 
to give to their suffering fellow-men. The facts are, the 
ingredients of these medicines are known; they are common 





306 


THE GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 


drugs, many of them long since discarded by physicians as 
having been weighed in the balance and found wanting. 

Many “patent medicines” contain a high per cent of al¬ 
cohol, and owe their reputation as “ repeaters ” to this 
drug. The prohibition officials have in some instances — 
not all — compelled the manufacturer to reduce the quan¬ 
tity of alcohol previously used, but there are still many on 

the market having an alcohol 
content of from ten to twenty- 
five per cent — as much as 
some champagnes and whis¬ 
kies. Drugs which are bene¬ 
ficial when taken according 
to the physician’s prescription 
are sometimes very harmful 
when used too frequently or 
in too large quantities, — as 
they commonly are when the 
patient administers them to 
himself in “ patent medi¬ 
cines.” 

The testimonials to the 
great virtues of “ patent 
He was one of the recent great medicines ” are, as evidence, 
scientists whose profound studies into wholly worthless. Many of 
the nature of disease set some of the them are written by sincere 
foundation stones on which the mod- people whoge mim | s are ut _ 

ern science of medicine has been , , . . . . , 

erected. terly incompetent to judge 

the medicine fairly, and a 
few of them are fraudulent — written in the advertising de¬ 
partment of the manufactory. 

One of the worst things about the habitual use of “ patent 
medicines ” is that the user gets to thinking in a morbid way 
about himself. He is always thinking that something is 
the matter with him and is looking for symptoms of disease. 





PATENT MEDICINES 


307 


u 


He usually finds them and proceeds to take the dope rec¬ 
ommended. If he did not have the “ patent medicine ” 
habit he would not imagine himself sick and would be a 
happier and more efficient worker. 

The use of “ patent medicines ” often has the disastrous 
effect of substituting a worthless drug for efficient medical 
attention. Some diseases (notably cancer) can be cured 



Figure 151 . — Camp Fire Girls in a Publicly Owned “Forest 
Preserve.” 


Cook County (Chicago) has hundreds of acres of such meadow and 
forest land with brooks, rivers, and lakes where groups of girls and of boys 
are permitted to camp. 

when taken in their early stages, but are almost or entirely 
hopeless when neglected until they are well developed. 
“ Patent medicines ” tempt one to neglect the doctor’s aid 
until it is too late. The same objection applies to consult¬ 
ing inefficient healers of any cult; it often puts off the serv¬ 
ices of a skilled physician until it is too late. 

What do we mean by a “ patent medicine ” ? How is a sick person 
to tell what, kind of medicine to use and when to use it ? Of what 
are “patent medicines” composed? What ingredient has been a 
feature in many of them? How can one be harmed by using a 
“ patent medicine ” composed of beneficial drugs ? Why are not the 
testimonials sufficient evidence that the medicines are good? Into 
what unwholesome state of mind is the user of “patent medicines” 



308 


THE GOVERNMENT AND HEALTH 


betrayed? Why is it said that one who treats himself has a fool 
for his doctor? What danger is there in trying out a “ patent medi¬ 
cine” or a new healer for a while before consulting a doctor? 

A Healthy Race. — What we are when we start in life’s 
race is what our parents endow us with — our physical in¬ 
heritance. To a few are given bodies of excellent form and 
structure, true in every part, and minds clear and well bal¬ 
anced. Most of us have inherited handicaps, — defective 
eyes, fragile teeth, weak lungs, thin muscles, unstable nerves. 
We must take ourselves as we are and make the best we can 
of the material we have. But society can do more than that 
for the next generation. It can give them better heredity 
by choosing their parents with more wisdom than our fathers 
showed. The feebleminded, the invalids, the insane, marry 
and pass on their imperfections to their children. No one 
knows how great is the weakness of our race due to bad 
heredity. But it is enormous. 

Why should we not all have native qualities as good as 
the best third of us? Because we breed so largely from the 
worst third. We must stop breeding from the poorest stock 
and increase reproduction of the best. This will have to 
be accomplished largely by the voluntary choice of individ¬ 
uals. If one is strong of body and sound of mind he is fit 
for parenthood and should accept the privilege. If one has 
a strain of insanity in his family, if he has epilepsy, severe 
tuberculosis, or any of half a dozen other weaknesses which 
would render his offspring defective, he has no right to have 
children. We should take pains to teach this to all who 
are intelligent enough to understand it, and to establish a 
public sentiment to help enforce it in society. 

But outside the sphere of self-controlling intellectual 
people lies the group of feebleminded. They are often 
strong of body though feeble in mind. Still their physical 
defects are numerous. They reproduce abundantly, and 
perish in large numbers because they have not the intelli- 


A HEALTHY RACE 


309 


gence to take care of themselves. They are a growing 
menace to the race. They intermingle with the better stock 
and contaminate the whole community with their feeble¬ 
mindedness. They can not control themselves. Therefore 
the government must take charge of them. 

The most feasible scheme seems to be for the government 
to segregate the feebleminded men in one community and 
the feebleminded women in another and put them under 
guardians. Their conditions of life should be as nearly 
normal as possible. They should work reasonably and have 
plenty of recreation, but child-bearing should be altogether 
prevented. With feeblemindedness and the other sources 
of hereditary weakness shut off, our race might well hope 
to overcome a large part of the ailments which now beset 
it and become a race of healthy men and women whose lives 
are joyous because they are the normal activities of perfect 
bodies. 





. 

























. 

•• • 


. 








' 


j 









. 


;■ >. : r.-' *■ 






























INDEX 


Numbers refer to pages 


Abscess on tooth, 81, 98 
Absorption, 22, 107 
Accidents, 249 
Acne, 155 
Adenoids, 127, 128 
Adrenal glands, 37 
Air moisteners, 141 
Air sacs, 25 
Alcohol, 86, 114, 117 
Ammonia refrigerator, 72, 74 
Anemia, 118 
Anesthetics, 86, 260 
Animal pests, 295 
Anti-bodies, 215 
Antiseptics, 256 
Antitoxin, 53, 215, 222-225 
Anti-typhoid serum, 220 
Appendix, 110 
Argyrol, 130 
Arteries, 113, 115 
Artesian well, 280 
Arthritis, 131, 184 
Artificial respiration, 255 
Assimilation of food, 10 
Astigmatism, 206 
Atoms, 3 
Atrium, 25 
Auditory tube, 212 
Auricles, 112, 113 
Automatic activities, 191 
Autonomic or self-governing nerve- 
system, 35-36 
Axon of nerve, 189 

Bacon packing, 78 
Bacteria, 48-52 
Baldness, 162 
Barber pole, 41 
Bath room, 272 
Bathing, 159 

Behring, Emil Adolph, 221 
Benzine, 234 
Biceps, 16 


Bites, 252 
Bladder, 31, 148 
Bleeding, 250 
Blindness, 210 
Blood, 25 

control of, 116-118 
fakers, 124 
medicines, 42 
Boils, 155 
Bones, 14, 17, 170 
broken, 186, 249 
infections, 187 
Boric acid, 256 
Bow legs, 171 
Brain, 125, 189 
currents, 195 
fever, 192 
food, 194 

Breathing, 24, 125 

movements of, 144-146 
Bright’s disease, 150 
Brine for preserving, 78 
Bronchial tubes, 23, 24 
Bronchitis, 126 
Bubonic plague, 156, 295 
Building regulations, 285 
Bunions, 166 
Burns, 253 
Butter, 62 

Caffein, 84 
Calcium, 59 
Calories, 64, 69 
Camera, 202 
Camp, 275 
Canal zone, 121 
Cancer of stomach, 101 
Canning, 76 
Capillaries, 26, 28 
Car driving, 240 
Carbohydrates, 20, 59 
Carbolic acid (see phenol) 
Carbon bisulfid, 258 


311 



312 


INDEX 


Numbers refer to pages 


Carbon dioxid, 12, 20, 30, 138 
monoxid, 233 
Carbuncle, 155 
Carrel-Dakin, 262 
Carriers of disease, 224 
Catarrh, 129 
Cathartics, 105 
Cauterize, 252 
Cells, 4-10 
needs of, 12 
Cellulose, 68 
Cereals, 66, 67, 81 
Cerebrum, 34, 125, 189 
Certified milk, 76 
Cesspool, 271 
Charlatans, 304 
Charms, 42 

Chaulmoogra, 54, 55, 57 
Chemical change, 4 
Chewing, 95, 96 
gum, 99 

Child labor, 300 
Chloroform, 86, 261 
Choking, 251 
Cholera, 103 
Cilia, 126 

Circulation of blood, 29 
City homes, 264 
Cleaning teeth, 96-98 
Cleanliness of food, 74 
Clothing, 157 
Cocaine, 86 
Cod liver oil, 60 
Codeine, 86 
Coffee, 84 
Cold cream, 160 
Cold, sense of, 38 
Colds, 129 
Colon, 20 

Communicable diseases, 215 
Compound fracture, 250 
Compounds, 3 
Condiments, 81 
Congestion of membrane, 129 
Connective tissue, 8 
Constipation, 105-107 
Control of blood, 116 
Cooking, 79 
Cooties, 156 
Corns, 165 

Corpuscles of blood, 26, 27 


Cosmetics, 160 
Creosote, 77 
Cure of disease, 54 
Curing foods, 77 
Cycle of life, 11 

Dancing, 177 
Dandruff, 161 
Delirium tremens, 192 
Denatured alcohol, 88 
Dermis, 152 
Diabetes, 109, 150 
Diaphragm, 24 
of camera, 202 
Diarrhea, 103 
Diet, 83 

Digestion, 22, 61, 94, 100-103 
Digestive tract, 20, 21 
fluids, 21 

Diphtheria, 131, 221 
antitoxin, 222-224 
Disease, definition, 47 
germs, 48 
Disinfectants, 55 
Dislocations of bones, 183 
Distilled liquors, 88 
Drink habit, 87 
Drinking fountain, 56 
water, 55, 56, 270, 279 
Drowning, restoration, 255 
Drug habit, 92, 93 
Drying food, 77 
Ductless glands, 36 
Ducts, 21 
Dust, 135 
Dysentery, 103 

Earache, 213 
Ears, 211 
Eating, 94, 95 
Education, 199 
Eggs, 66 

Ehrlich, Paul, 161 
Electricity, 245 
Elements, 3 
Enema, 105 
Energy, 10, 14 
Enzymes, 22 
Epidermis, 39, 152 
Epilepsy, 254 
Esophagus, 20 




INDEX 


313 


Numbers refer to pages 


Ether, 86, 260 
Eugenics, 308 
Eustachian tube, 212 
Excretions, 22 
Exercise, 173, 178 
Exhale, 145 
Explosives, 246 
Eye, 202 

Fainting, 254 
Falling, 237 
Far-sight, 208 
Fats, 20, 59, 109 
Feces, 22 

Feeblemindedness, 308 
Feet, 166-169 
Felon, 187 
Finger nails, 162 
Fire, causes, 233-235 
drill, 236 

extinguishers, 236 
loss, 231 
prevention, 234 
Firearms, 246 
Fleas, 156 
Flies, 220, 275, 296 
Floors, 269 
Focus, of eye, 204 
defects in, 207 
Food, 18-20, 59ff. 
care of, 72 

Food, classes of, 19, 20 
composition of, 69, 71 
cost of, 61, 62 
dangers in, 246 
inspection of, 283 
quantity of, 63 
table of values, 69, 70 
Formaldehyde, 258 
Fresh-air schools, 143 
Frost bite, 253 
Fruit, 68, 106 
Fumigation, 55, 258 

Galen, 42 
Games, 174 
Ganglion, 34 
Garbage, 274, 281, 282 
Gas suffocation, 232 
Gasoline, 234 
Gastric glands, 21 
juice, 100 


Germs, 48 
Glucose, 22 
Glycogen, 108 
Goiter, 37 

Gorgas, Maj. Gen. Wm. C., 121 
Government and health, 279 
Growth, 10 

Habit, 197 
Hair, 160 
Hang nail, 163 
Hay fever, 136 
Hazardous occupations, 298 
Headache tablets, 87 
Health, definition, 2 
centers, 290 
Heart, 112-114 
Heartburn, 100 
Heat in homes, 268, 269 
Height and weight table, 65 
Hercules, 172 
Heredity, 308 
Hernia, 175 

Holmes, Oliver Wendell, 261 
Home, the, 263-269 
Home exercise, 178 
Hookworm, 103 
Hormones, 36 
Hospitals, 287 
Humidifiers, 142 
Hydrochloric acid, 100 
Hydrogen, 3 
Hydrogen peroxid, 258 
Hydrophobia, 226 

Ice box, 72 
Illuminating gas, 232 
Immunity, 54, 215 
Indigestion, 100, 103 
Infant mortality, 104 
Infections of the skin, 154 
Influenza, 132 
Inhale, 144 
Insect powder, 269 
Inspection of food, 283 
Intercellular material, 8 
Intestines, 20, 21, 31, 102 
Involuntary movements, 190 
nerve control, 35 
Iodin, 257 
Iris, 204 



314 


INDEX 


Numbers refer to pages 


Iron, 118 
Itch, 156 
Ivy poison, 252 

Jackson, Dr., 260 
Jason, 172 
Jam, 78 
Jelly, 78 

Jenner, Dr. Edward, 218 
Joints, 17, 18, 183, 185 

Kerosene, 234 
Kidneys, 30, 147 
Kitchen, 268 
Knee joint, 185 
Knock knee, 171 
Koch, Dr. Robert, 228 

Lacteals, 107 
Larynx, 24 
Laughing gas, 260 
Lens of eye, 203, 207, 208 
Leprosy, 54, 187 
Life, what it is, 1, 2, 9 
Ligaments, 17, 18 
Light for reading, 205 
Lightning, 234 

Lister, Sir Joseph, 45, 46, 261 

Liver, 21, 31, 109 

Lockjaw, 225 

Long, Dr. C. W., 260 

Louse, 156 

Lungs, 23, 30 

Lymph, 8, 25, 28 

Lymphatics, 28 

Lysol, 257 

Machines, 243 
guards, 244 
Malaria, 118 
Manure, 274 
Mastoiditis, 213 
Matches and fire, 233 
Meal times, 94 
Meninges, 192 
Meningitis, 192 
Mercury bichlorid, 257 
Metchnikoff, Iliya, 27 
Microbes (see Bacteria), 48 
Microorganisms (see Bacteria), 48 
Military training, 176 


Milk, 59, 66, 75, 171 

Mineral salts, 59, 68 

Miracles in medicine, 44 

Mold, 49 

Molecules, 3 

Morphin, 86 

Morton, Dr., 260 

Mosquitoes, 118, 119 

Movements in the body, 9, 14, 17 

Mucous membrane, 21 

Mucus, 125 

Muscles, 16-19, 170 

Mushrooms, 43 

Mystery in healing, 42 

Nails, finger and toe, 162 
Narcotics, 84, 86, 114, 191 
Nasal passages, 127 
Nearsight, 207 
Nerve, 34 
currents, 196 
system, 33, 188 
Neuralgia, 193 
Nicotine, 90 

Nitrogenous food, 18, 59 
waste, 149 
Nitrous oxid, 86 
Nose bleed, 250 
breathing, 127 
Novocaine, 86 
Nucleus, 5, 9 
Nuisance, 297 

Oil mop, 270 

Oil spray for mosquitoes, 120 
Oleomargarine, 62 
Opium, 86 
Optic nerve, 203 
Organism, body an, 14 
Overwork, 200 
Oxidation, 10 
Oxygen, 3 

cell’s need of, 12 
in blood, 25 

Packing houses, 72, 82 
Panama, 120, 123 
Pancreas, 21 
Papilla of the skin, 154 
Paralysis, 193 

Paraformaldehyde candle, 258 



INDEX 


315 


Numbers refer to pages 


Parasite, 48 
Paratyphoid, 220 
Parks, 301 

Pasteur, Dr. Louis, 45, 261 
Pasteurization, 75, 76 
“Patent medicines,” 42, 305 
Pelvis of kidney, 148 
Periosteum, 186 
Perspiration, 32, 33 
Pests, animal, 295 
Phagocytosis, 26 
Phenol, 251, 257 
Physicians, 303 
Pimples, 155 
Pituitary gland, 37 
Plasm, 25 

Playgrounds, 11, 301, 305 

Pneumonia, 132 

Poisons, 246, 251 

Poison ivy, 252 

Pollen, 136 

Portal vein, 108 

Posture, 180-184 

Pottenger Sanatorium, 288, 289 

Practical jokes, 248 

Preserving food, 72, 77 ' 

Preventive medicine, 231 

Protection, 39, 53, 298 

Protein, 18, 59 

Protoplasm, 2, 4 

Pseudo-science, 43 

Ptomaines, 61 

Pulmotor, 255 

Pulse, 115 

Pupil of eye, 204 

Pus, 53 

Pustule, 155 

Pyorrhea, 81 

Quarantine, 216, 293 
Quinin, 120 
Quinsy, 130 

Rabies, 226 
Radiation of heat, 32 
Railroad accidents, 240 
Recreation centers, 300 
Rectum, 20 
Reflex action, 190 
Refrigeration, 72 
Respiration, 125 


Retina, 203, 208 
Rhythm, 177 
Rice, 67 
Rickets, 170 
Ringworm, 156 
Rocky Mountain fever, 156 
Rural homes, 265 
toilets, 272 

Safety first, 231 
Salivary glands, 22 
Sanatoria, 287 
Sanitation, 57, 229, 276 
Schick test, 224 

School dentist, doctor, nurse, 291, 293 
sanitation, 276 
Scientific methods, 44 
Scrapes and scratches, 252 
Selection of food, 59 
Sensation, 38 
Senses, 38, 40 
Sewage, 271, 281 
Shoes, 164 
Sickness, 47, 48 
Simpson, Dr., 261 
Sinuses of skull, 127, 131 
Skeleton, 15 
Skin, 30, 32, 39, 152 
Sleep, 194 
Smallpox, 216 
Smell, 38 

Smith, Theobald, 100 
Smoke, 137, 138 
Sodium fluorid, 269 
Sore throat, 284 
Special senses, 38 
Spinal cord, 35 
meningitis, 193 
Spontaneous combustion, 234 
Spore, 50 
Spotted fever, 156 
Sprain, 183, 250 
Standard weights, 65 
Steam sterilizer, 259 
Stegomyia, 122 
Stimulants, 84, 191 
Stings, 252 
Stockings, 169 
Stomach, 20, 21 
digestion, 100-102 
Stove, jacket, 277 




316 


INDEX 


Numbers refer to pages 


Street rules, 238-240 

Streptococcus, 131 

Sty, 210 

Suffocation, 254 

Sulfur candle, 258 

Summer complaint, 104 

Superstition, 41 

Suprarenal gland, 31 

Synovial membrane, 17, 18, 184 

TA, 224 
Tannin, 85 
Tape worm, 79, 103 
Taste, 38 
Tea, 84 
Teeth, 96-98 
Temperature limits, 12 
regulation, 32 
Tendons, 8, 16, 17 
Tetanus, 225 
Thein, 84 
Thyroid, 37 
Tick, 156 
Tissue, 8 
Tobacco, 86, 90 
heart, 91 

Toe nails, 163, 167 
Toilet, chemical, 272 
Tongue, 125 
Tonic, 124 
Tonsils, 130 
Tooth powder, 98 
Touch, 38, 154 
Tourniquet, 250 
Toxin, 52 

Toxin-antitoxin (TA), 57, 224 
Trachea, 23, 24, 125 
Trachoma, 210 
Track sports, 175 
Triceps, 16 


Trichina, 79, 103 
Tuberculosis, 226-228 
Typhoid fever, 76, 103, 219 

Urea, 30, 148 
Ureter, 31, 148 
Urethra, 31, 148 
Urine, 30 

Vaccination, 57, 216-218 
Valves in heart, 113 
in veins, 115, 116 
Vegetables, 67, 81 
Vegetarian, 66 
Veins, 115 

Ventilation, 135-140 
Ventricles of heart, 113 
Villi, 107, 108 
Virchow, Rudolph, 306 
Vitamines, 60, 76, 78 
Voluntary action, 34, 190 

Warts, 164 

Waste, removal, 12, 30, 149 
Water supply, 270, 279 
on the knee, 184 
dangers of, 242 
Weight table, 65 
Wells, Dr. Horace, 260 
Wells for water, 271 
Wigglers, 120 
Wood alcohol, 88 
Workers’ protection, 298 

Yeast, 49, 60 
Yellow fever, 122 

Zoning, 264 




















/ 

/ 




















